Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Raise water level to restore/create brackish/salt marshes from other land uses Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of raising the water level to restore/create brackish/salt marshes from other land uses or habitat types. Both studies were in the same area of Iraq, but used different study sites. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community types (1 study): One before-and-after study of a slightly brackish marsh in Iraq reported that fewer plant community types were present three years after reflooding than before drainage. Overall richness/diversity (2 studies): Two before-and-after studies of brackish marshes in Iraq reported that fewer plant species were present three years after reflooding than before drainage. One of these studies also reported that individual plant communities typically had lower diversity after reflooding than before drainage. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (1 study): One before-and-after study of a slightly brackish marsh in Iraq reported that six of seven studied plant communities had lower spring and/or summer biomass three years after reflooding than before drainage. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3199https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3199Fri, 09 Apr 2021 07:45:05 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Raise water level to restore/create freshwater swamps from other land uses Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of raising the water level to restore/create freshwater swamps from other land uses or habitat types. Both studies monitored the effects of one river dechannelization project in the USA. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Overall extent (1 study): One before-and-after study of a floodplain in the USA reported that after dechannelizing a river to raise the water level, the area of shrubby and forested wetlands increased – reaching greater coverage than before intervention, but also than before degradation. Community types (1 study): The same study broke down overall swamp coverage into specific community types. For example, most of the shrubby wetlands that developed after raising the water level were dominated by a non-native species – which was not present historically. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE                                                                             Overall abundance (1 study): One before-and-after, site comparison study of historical shrubby wetlands on a floodplain in the USA reported that dechannelizing a river to raise the water level reduced overall vegetation cover in the following nine years. Characteristic plant abundance (1 study): The same study reported that after dechannelizing a river to raise the water level, only one of two sites became dominated by wetland-characteristic shrubs. The other site remained dominated by wetland-characteristic herb species. Individual species abundance (1 study): The same study reported that dechannelizing a river to raise the water level slightly increased cover of buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis in one of two sites (no data for other site). VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3200https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3200Fri, 09 Apr 2021 07:45:18 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Lower water level to restore/create freshwater marshes from other land uses Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of lowering the water level to restore/create freshwater marshes from other land uses or habitat types. One study was in the USA and one was in the Netherlands. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Overall extent (1 study): One replicated, before-and-after study of a freshwater wetland in the USA reported that following a drawdown of water levels, emergent vegetation coverage increased in areas that were previously open water. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (1 study): One before-and-after study at the edge of a freshwater lake in the Netherlands reported that following a drawdown of the lake water level, vegetation cover developed in areas that were previously open water. Cover varied between years and elevations. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3202https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3202Fri, 09 Apr 2021 07:46:42 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Facilitate tidal exchange to restore/create brackish/saline swamps from other land uses Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of facilitating tidal exchange to restore/create brackish/saline swamps from other land uses or habitat types. One study was in Australia and one was in Thailand. VEGETATION COMMUNITY                              Overall extent (1 study): One before-and-after study in an estuary in Australia reported that the area of mangrove forest on an island was greater 3–9 years after restoring full tidal exchange than in the years before. Tree/shrub richness/diversity (1 study): One study in a former shrimp pond in Thailand reported the number of mangrove tree species that spontaneously colonized in the six years after restoring full tidal exchange (along with other interventions). VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Individual species abundance (1 study): One study in a former shrimp pond in Thailand reported the number of mangrove trees, by species, that spontaneously colonized in the six years after restoring full tidal exchange (along with other interventions). VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3209https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3209Fri, 09 Apr 2021 07:49:33 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Reprofile/relandscape: freshwater swamps Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of reprofiling or relandscaping to restore or create freshwater swamps. Both studies were in the USA. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA found that swamps created by reprofiling uplands (along with planting trees/shrubs) contained a similar proportion of tree species in different plant groups, after 7–11 years, to nearby swamps recovering naturally from logging. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA found that swamps created by reprofiling uplands (along with planting trees/shrubs) had similar ground and canopy cover, after 7–11 years, to nearby swamps recovering naturally from logging. Herb abundance (1 study): One study in a former firing range in the USA simply quantified herb cover approximately 1–2 years after reprofiling the site (and planting trees/shrubs). Tree/shrub abundance (1 study): One study in a former firing range in the USA simply quantified woody plant cover approximately 1–2 years after reprofiling the site (and planting trees/shrubs). VEGETATION STRUCTURE Visual obstruction (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study in the USA found that swamps created by reprofiling uplands (along with planting trees/shrubs) had less horizontal vegetation cover, after 7–11 years, than nearby swamps recovering naturally from logging. Height (1 study): The same study found that swamps created by reprofiling uplands (along with planting trees/shrubs) contained shorter woody vegetation, after 7–11 years, than nearby swamps recovering naturally from logging. Herbaceous vegetation, however, was of similar height in both created and naturally recovering swamps. Basal area (1 study): The same study found that swamps created by reprofiling uplands (along with planting trees/shrubs) had a lower vegetation basal area, after 7–11 years, than nearby swamps recovering naturally from logging. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3215https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3215Fri, 09 Apr 2021 09:10:34 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Create mounds or hollows: brackish/saline swamps One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of creating mounds or hollows in brackish/saline swamps. The study was in Indonesia. VEGETATION COMMUNITY   VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Tree/shrub abundance (1 study): One study in Indonesia simply reported the number of mangrove tree seedlings that had colonized a pile of branches placed in a disused aquaculture pond, around seven months after depositing the branches (and releasing mangrove propagules). VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3220https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3220Fri, 09 Apr 2021 12:55:02 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Remove surface soil/sediment: brackish/salt marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of removing surface soil/sediment to restore or create brackish/salt marshes. The study was in the Netherlands. VEGETATION COMMUNITY                              Overall richness/diversity (1 study): One study in the Netherlands reported that 23 plant species colonized over two years after stripping topsoil from coastal farmland. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Individual species abundance (1 study): One study in the Netherlands reported the frequency of plant species that colonized over two years after stripping topsoil from coastal farmland. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3222https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3222Fri, 09 Apr 2021 13:08:28 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Disturb soil/sediment surface: freshwater marshes Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of disturbing the surface of freshwater marshes. Both studies were in the USA – in the same region but different sites. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled study in rewetted marshes in the USA found that ploughed plots contained a plant community characteristic of wetter conditions than unploughed plots after one growing season – but not after two. Overall richness/diversity (2 studies): Two replicated, controlled studies in rewetted marshes in the USA found that ploughed plots typically contained more wetland plant species than unploughed plots after one growing season – but not after two. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (2 studies): Two replicated, controlled studies in rewetted marshes in the USA found that ploughed plots had greater cover of wetland plants than unploughed plots after one growing season – but not after two. Individual species abundance (1 study): One replicated, controlled study in rewetted marshes in the USA found that ploughed plots had much greater cover of cattails Typha than unploughed plots after two growing seasons. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3226https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3226Fri, 09 Apr 2021 14:04:02 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Disturb soil/sediment surface: brackish/salt marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of disturbing the surface of brackish/salt marshes. The study was in the USA. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One replicated, paired, site comparison study of brackish/salt marshes in the USA reported that marshes disked every spring for at least six years (and drawn down during spring/autumn) shared only 24–34% of plant species with marshes that were not disked (or drawn down). Overall richness/diversity (1 study): The same study found that overall plant species richness and diversity were similar in managed marshes (disked every spring and drawn down during spring/autumn, for at least six years) and unmanaged marshes (neither disked nor drawn down). VEGETATION ABUNDANCE   VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3227https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3227Fri, 09 Apr 2021 14:04:14 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add sediment: freshwater marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of adding sediment to existing freshwater marshes. The study was in the USA. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Overall richness/diversity (1 study): One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in the USA reported that adding sediment to freshwater marshes typically reduced plant species richness after one growing season. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (1 study): One replicated, randomized, paired, controlled study in the USA found that adding sediment to freshwater marshes had no significant effect on total live vegetation biomass after one growing season. Individual species abundance (1 study): The same study found that adding sediment to freshwater marshes had no significant effect on the biomass of most of the dominant herbaceous species after one growing season. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3230https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3230Fri, 09 Apr 2021 14:26:32 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Deposit soil/sediment to form physical structure of freshwater marshes Two studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of depositing soil/sediment to form the physical structure of freshwater marshes (without introducing vegetation). One study was in the USA and one was in the Netherlands. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community types (1 study): One replicated, paired, site comparison study in the Netherlands reported that marshes created by depositing sand at lake margins contained fewer plant community types, after 8–16 years, than mature natural marshes. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (2 studies): One site comparison study in the USA reported that plant stem density was similar, after 4–10 years, in marshes created by depositing sediment and in natural marshes, but that vegetation cover was lower in the created marshes. One replicated, paired, site comparison study in the Netherlands reported that marshes created by depositing sand at lake margins contained similar vegetation biomass to nearby natural marshes after 8–16 years. VEGETATION STRUCTURE Height (1 study): One site comparison study in the USA reported that a freshwater marsh created by depositing sediment contained vegetation of a similar height to nearby natural marshes after 4–10 years. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3235https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3235Fri, 09 Apr 2021 15:01:56 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Deposit soil/sediment to form physical structure of brackish/salt marshes Four studies evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of depositing soil/sediment to form the physical structure of brackish/salt marshes (without introducing vegetation). Three studies were in the USA and one study was in Italy. Two studies took place in the same marsh, but in different areas. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Overall extent (1 study): One replicated study in a lagoon in Italy quantified the area of vegetation on sediment deposited up to 19 years previously (average six years four months, with 61% vegetation coverage). Community types (2 studies): Two replicated studies in coastal wetlands in the USA and Italy quantified the coverage of brackish or salt marsh plant communities on sediment deposited up to 19 years previously. Community composition (1 study): One replicated, site comparison study on the coast of the USA reported that the composition of the plant community that developed on deposited sediment depended on the time since deposition and the elevation of the sediment. Areas of sediment that were of a similar elevation to natural marshes (or slightly lower) developed (or were developing) a similar overall plant community composition to the natural marshes. Overall richness/diversity (1 study): One replicated study in an estuary in the USA reported that 1–2 plant species had colonized areas of deposited sediment after 4–8 years. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE   VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3236https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3236Fri, 09 Apr 2021 15:02:12 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add inorganic fertilizer: freshwater marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of adding inorganic fertilizer to restore or create freshwater marshes. The study was in Germany. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Community composition (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled, before-and-after study in wet grasslands in Germany reported that the effect of annual fertilization (for 20 years) on the average moisture preference of the vegetation varied between sites. Overall richness/diversity (1 study): The same study reported that the effect of annual fertilization (for 20 years) on total plant species richness varied between sites. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Overall abundance (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled study in wet grasslands in Germany reported that plots fertilized every spring contained more vegetation biomass, after 4–18 years, than unfertilized plots. Herb abundance (1 study): The same study reported that the effect of annual fertilization (for 20 years) on cover of herb groups (sedges, rushes, forbs, ferns, grasses and legumes) varied between sites. VEGETATION STRUCTURE Height (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled, before-and-after study in wet grasslands in Germany reported that the effect of annual fertilization (for 20 years) on vegetation height varied between sites. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3239https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3239Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:11:20 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add inorganic fertilizer: brackish/salt marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of adding inorganic fertilizer to restore or create brackish/salt marshes. The study was in Canada. VEGETATION COMMUNITY   VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Characteristic plant abundance (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled, before-and-after study in salt-contaminated bogs in Canada found that adding fertilizer had no significant effect on cover of salt marsh vegetation, in unplanted plots, after one year. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3240https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3240Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:12:30 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add below-ground organic matter: brackish/salt marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of adding below-ground organic matter to restore or create brackish/salt marshes. The study was in the USA. VEGETATION COMMUNITY   VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Individual species abundance (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled, before-and-after study in a salt marsh in the USA found that plots amended with alginate contained a greater density of smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora than unamended plots after 6–52 weeks. However, amended and unamended plots contained similar smooth cordgrass biomass when it was sampled after 52 weeks. VEGETATION STRUCTURE Height (1 study): One replicated, randomized, controlled, before-and-after study in a salt marsh in the USA found that amending plots with alginate had no significant effect on smooth cordgrass height in the first 16 weeks after intervention, but that amended plots contained taller smooth cordgrass than unamended plots after 28–52 weeks. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3244https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3244Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:33:05 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add below-ground organic matter: brackish/saline swampsWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of adding below-ground organic matter to restore or create brackish/saline swamps.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3246https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3246Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:33:31 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add surface mulch: freshwater marshesWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of using organic mulch to restore or create freshwater marshes.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3247https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3247Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:51:29 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add surface mulch: brackish/salt marshes One study evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of using organic mulch to restore or create brackish/salt marshes. The study was in Australia. VEGETATION COMMUNITY Overall richness/diversity (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled study on a sandflat in Australia found that mulched and unmulched plots had similar plant species richness over two years. VEGETATION ABUNDANCE Herb abundance (1 study): One replicated, paired, controlled study on a sandflat in Australia found that mulched plots were more likely to contain glasswort Sarcocornia quinqueflora than unmulched plots, after 20 months. However, mulching had no significant effect on glasswort biomass after 20 months, and typically had no significant effect on glasswort cover over two years. VEGETATION STRUCTURECollected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3248https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3248Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:51:36 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add surface mulch: freshwater swampsWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of using organic mulch to restore or create freshwater swamps.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3249https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3249Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:51:52 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add surface mulch: brackish/saline swampsWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of using organic mulch to restore or create brackish/saline swamps.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3250https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3250Sat, 10 Apr 2021 12:52:03 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Add cover other than mulchWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on vegetation, of using cover other than mulch to restore/create marshes or swamps.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3251https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3251Sat, 10 Apr 2021 13:03:16 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Introduce nurse plants: freshwater marshesWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on naturally colonizing vegetation, of introducing nurse plants to restore or create freshwater marshes.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3252https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3252Sat, 10 Apr 2021 13:03:49 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Introduce nurse plants: brackish/salt marshesWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on naturally colonizing vegetation, of introducing nurse plants to restore or create brackish/salt marshes.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3253https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3253Sat, 10 Apr 2021 13:04:09 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Introduce nurse plants: freshwater swampsWe found no studies that evaluated the effects, on naturally colonizing vegetation, of introducing nurse plants to restore or create freshwater swamps.   ‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this action during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore we have been unable to assess whether or not the action is effective or has any harmful impacts. Please get in touch if you know of such a study for this action.Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3254https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3254Sat, 10 Apr 2021 13:04:24 +0100Collected Evidence: Collected Evidence: Introduce nurse plants: brackish/saline swamps One study evaluated the effects, on naturally colonizing vegetation, of introducing nurse plants to restore or create brackish/saline swamps. The study was in India. VEGETATION COMMUNITY   VEGETATION ABUNDANCE   VEGETATION STRUCTURE Height (1 study): One study on an estuarine mudflat in India reported that the average height of mangrove propagules trapped by nurse grasses increased by 21–90% (depending on the species) over the first month after establishment. OTHER Germination/emergence (1 study): One study on an estuarine mudflat in India reported that 60–80% (depending on the species) of mangrove propagules trapped by nurse grasses developed into seedlings. Saltmarsh grasses trapped 1,200–1,372 mangrove propagules/m2/week, approximately 1–2 years after they were planted. Collected Evidencehttps%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3255https%3A%2F%2Fconservationevidencejournal.com%2Factions%2F3255Sat, 10 Apr 2021 13:04:30 +0100
What Works 2021 cover

What Works in Conservation

What Works in Conservation provides expert assessments of the effectiveness of actions, based on summarised evidence, in synopses. Subjects covered so far include amphibians, birds, mammals, forests, peatland and control of freshwater invasive species. More are in progress.

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