Action

Manage grazing regime

How is the evidence assessed?
  • Effectiveness
    45%
  • Certainty
    39%
  • Harms
    10%

Study locations

Key messages

 

About key messages

Key messages provide a descriptive index to studies we have found that test this intervention.

Studies are not directly comparable or of equal value. When making decisions based on this evidence, you should consider factors such as study size, study design, reported metrics and relevance of the study to your situation, rather than simply counting the number of studies that support a particular interpretation.

Supporting evidence from individual studies

  1. A replicated, controlled study in 1992–1995 of natterjack toad Bufo calamita terrestrial habitat in southern England, UK (Denton & Beebee 1996) found that natterjacks did not use grazed plots more than ungrazed plots. There was no significant difference between average numbers in grazed and ungrazed plots for toadlets (13 vs 13) or adults (5 vs 5). Total common toad Bufo bufo numbers were lower in grazed compared to ungrazed plots and surroundings (1 vs 11). Four plots (20 x 20 m) of each of four habitats were established: grassy clearfell, sandy clearfell, heath and moss habitat. Two plots of each were grazed in May–September by highland cattle (1 adult/3 ha). Captive-reared natterjack toadlets were released onto each square in summer, 75 in 1992 and 20 in 1993. Toads were monitored twice monthly in April–September 1992–1995.

    Study and other actions tested
  2. A replicated, before-and-after study in 1989–1997 of coastal meadows and abandoned fields on two islands in Funen County, Denmark (Briggs 2003) found that the green toad Bufo viridis population increased significantly following reintroduction of grazing to fields, along with pond creation and restoration. The population increased from 92 to 2,568. Pond occupancy increased from 10 to 29 ponds and ponds with successful breeding from four to seven. In 1989–1997, cattle grazing was reintroduced to 48 ha of coastal meadows and abandoned fields. Four ponds were created and eight restored by removing plants and dredging. Populations were monitored annually in 1990–1997 during two or three call, visual and dip-net surveys. One population was also monitored in 1987–1989.

    Study and other actions tested
  3. A replicated, before-and-after study in 1986–2004 of coastal meadows in Funen County, Denmark (Briggs 2004) found that green toad Bufo viridis and natterjack toad Bufo calamita populations increased significantly following reintroduction of grazing of fields, along with pond creation and restoration. On 10 islands, the total number of green toad adults increased from 1,132 to over 10,000 in 2004. Numbers remained stable on four islands without management. Pond occupancy increased from 27 in 1988 to 61 ponds in 1997 and ponds with successful breeding doubled from 11 to 22. Natterjacks increased from 3,106 in 1988 to 4,892 adults in 1997. Ponds with successful breeding remained similar (28–34). In 2000–2004, numbers dropped and small populations were lost due to insufficient grazing. In 1987–1993, cattle grazing was reintroduced to 111 ha of coastal meadows on six islands and continued on a further 10. From 1990, farmers could get financial support from EU agri-environmental schemes. In addition, 31 ponds were created and 31 restored by removing reeds on 16 islands. Green toad eggs were translocated to one island. Four populations were monitored annually and others less frequently during two or three call, visual and dip-net surveys.

    Study and other actions tested
  4. A before-and-after study in 1994–2004 of a coastal meadow on a small island in Estonia (Lepik 2004) found that reintroduction of grazing along with aquatic and terrestrial habitat restoration resulted in a stable population of natterjack toads Bufo calamita. A total of 17 natterjacks were counted in 1992 and seven in 2004, with numbers ranging from 1–17/year. The author considered that without management the population may have declined or become extinct. Common toad Bufo bufo counts were eight in 1992 and four in 2004 and ranged from 3 to 40/year. Restoration on the 16 ha island involved implementation of sheep grazing, reed and scrub removal and mowing. Toads were counted along a 1 km transect.

    Study and other actions tested
  5. A replicated, before-and-after study in 2001–2004 of three coastal meadows in Estonia (Rannap 2004) found that reintroduction of grazing along with aquatic and terrestrial habitat restoration increased the population of natterjack toads Bufo calamita on one island and halted the decline on the other two islands. In 2001–2004, habitats were restored where the species still occurred. Restoration included reintroduction of grazing where it had ceased, reed and scrub removal and mowing. Sixty-six breeding ponds and natural depressions were cleaned, deepened and restored.

    Study and other actions tested
  6. A before-and-after study in 1989–2003 of tallgrass prairie in Kansas, USA (Wilgers et al. 2006) found that there was no significant difference in the decline in amphibian species richness during season-long cattle stocking compared to intensive-early stocking. Although not significant, species richness tended to decline faster during season-long stocking than during intensive-early stocking. Authors considered that strong conclusions could not be reached because of confounding effects of changes in both grazing and burning. From 1989 to 1998, the ranch was managed with traditional season-long stocking (0.6 cattle/ha) with burning in alternate years. From 1999, management changed to intensive-early stocking (1.0 cattle/ha) for three months from late spring combined with annual burning. Amphibians were surveyed in April each year along a 4 km transect.

    Study and other actions tested
  7. A replicated, site comparison study in 1985–2006 of 20 sites in the UK (McGrath & Lorenzen 2010) found that natterjack toad Bufo calamita populations increased with species specific habitat management including introduction of grazing to fields. Populations declined at unmanaged sites. Individual types of habitat management (aquatic, terrestrial or common toad Bufo bufo management) did not significantly affect trends, but length of management did. Overall, five of the 20 sites showed positive population trends, five showed negative trends and 10 showed no significant trend. Data on populations (egg string counts) and management activities over 11–21 years were obtained from the Natterjack Toad Site Register. Habitat management was undertaken at seven sites. Management varied between sites, but included introduction of grazing, pond creation, adding lime to acidic ponds, maintaining water levels and vegetation clearance. Translocations were also undertaken at seven of the 20 sites using wild-sourced (including head-started) or captive-bred toads.

    Study and other actions tested
Please cite as:

Smith, R.K., Meredith, H. & Sutherland, W.J. (2020) Amphibian Conservation. Pages 9-64 in: W.J. Sutherland, L.V. Dicks, S.O. Petrovan & R.K. Smith (eds) What Works in Conservation 2020. Open Book Publishers, Cambridge, UK.

Where has this evidence come from?

List of journals searched by synopsis

All the journals searched for all synopses

Amphibian Conservation

This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:

Amphibian Conservation
What Works 2021 cover

What Works in Conservation

What Works in Conservation provides expert assessments of the effectiveness of actions, based on summarised evidence, in synopses. Subjects covered so far include amphibians, birds, mammals, forests, peatland and control of freshwater invasive species. More are in progress.

More about What Works in Conservation

Download free PDF or purchase
The Conservation Evidence Journal

The Conservation Evidence Journal

An online, free to publish in, open-access journal publishing results from research and projects that test the effectiveness of conservation actions.

Read the latest volume: Volume 21

Go to the CE Journal

Discover more on our blog

Our blog contains the latest news and updates from the Conservation Evidence team, the Conservation Evidence Journal, and our global partners in evidence-based conservation.


Who uses Conservation Evidence?

Meet some of the evidence champions

Endangered Landscape ProgrammeRed List Champion - Arc Kent Wildlife Trust The Rufford Foundation Save the Frogs - Ghana Mauritian Wildlife Supporting Conservation Leaders
Sustainability Dashboard National Biodiversity Network Frog Life The international journey of Conservation - Oryx Cool Farm Alliance UNEP AWFA Bat Conservation InternationalPeople trust for endangered species Vincet Wildlife Trust