Transplant wild grown coral onto natural substrate
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Overall effectiveness category Awaiting assessment
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Number of studies: 37
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Supporting evidence from individual studies
A study in 1997–1999 at a damaged coral reef site off Mona Island, Puerto Rico (Bruckner & Bruckner 2001) found that more than 50% of broken fragments of elkhorn Acropora palmata coral survived reattachment but fewer survived when reattached to dead coral skeletons compared to coral reef substrate, some developed new upward growth and some had fused to the attachment surface. Two years after reattachment, 405/705 of fragments were still alive (retaining some live tissue cover), 182/705 had died and 118/705 were missing (removed from analysis). There was a lower proportion of live fragments attached to coral skeletons (173/269) compared to the reef substrate (232/318). Only 58/705 fragments had fused to the dead coral or reef substrate; 128/705 fragments had either fully or partially overgrown the attachment wire. New upward growth (2–10 cm) was recorded on 108/705 of the fragments. In September–October 1997, following a ship grounding, 1,857 broken elkhorn coral fragments (15 cm–3.4 m) were reattached to dead standing elkhorn skeletons using stainless steel wire and cable ties, or to the reef substrate using wire and nails. Monitoring was carried out in August 1999 on a representative sample of the fragments (38%, 705/1,857). New upward growth was measured and an estimate was made of the level of surface attachment (fused, fully or partially overgrown wire).
Study and other actions testedA study in 1997–1999 at a damaged coral reef site off Mona Island, Puerto Rico, (Bruckner & Bruckner 2001) found a greater percentage of live tissue cover on broken fragments of elkhorn Acropora palmata coral reattached the right way up on dead coral skeletons or reef substrate compared to fragments attached upside down, but no difference in the survival rate or length of fragments. Two years after reattachment, average live tissue cover was higher on fragments attached the right way up (54%; relative to their original orientation before breakage) compared to average cover on fragments attached upside down (47%). There was no difference in survival for fragments reattached the right way up (71% 267/376) compared to upside down (63% 120/190). Average length of fragments did not vary between those attached the right way up (66 cm) and upside down (59 cm). In September – October 1997, following a ship grounding, 1,857 broken elkhorn coral fragments (15 cm – 3.4 m) were reattached to dead standing elkhorn skeletons using stainless steel wire and cable ties, or to the reef substrate using wire and nails. Fragments were attached either the right way up or upside down. Monitoring was carried out in August 1999 on a representative sample of the fragments (38%, 705/1,857). Proportion of live tissue cover remaining on the upper (visible) surface of the fragment was recorded by two divers directly above the fragments.
Study and other actions testedA study in 1997–1999 at a damaged coral reef site off Mona Island, Puerto Rico, (Bruckner & Bruckner 2001) reported a higher overall survival rate of broken fragments of elkhorn Acropora palmata coral reattached to dead coral skeletons or coral reef substrate in shallow water compared to deeper water, and there was a higher percentage of live tissue cover on fragments reattached to dead coral skeletons in shallower water compared to deeper. After two years, survival was higher for fragments reattached at shallow (<3 m) and intermediate (3–4 m) depths (shallow: 71%, 122/172; intermediate 74%, 188/253) compared to deeper (>4m; 59%, 95/162) Survival rate was higher for fragments attached to dead coral skeletons at shallow (68%, 64/94) and intermediate (70%, 71/101) depths compared to deeper (49%, 36/73). Live tissue cover was higher on fragments reattached to dead coral at shallow (49%) and intermediate (60%) depths than deeper (38%). There was no difference in live tissue cover between depths for fragments attached to the reef substrate. In September–October 1997, following a ship grounding, 1,857 broken elkhorn coral fragments (0.15–3.40 m) were reattached to dead-standing elkhorn skeletons using stainless steel wire and cable ties, or to the reef substrate using wire and nails. Fragments were attached 2–7 m deep categorized as shallow: 2–3m, intermediate: 3–4 m, deep: 4–7 m. Monitoring was carried out in August 1999 on a representative sample of the fragments (38%, 705/1,857). The number of live fragments and proportion of live tissue cover remaining on the upper (visible) surface of the fragment were recorded by two divers directly above the fragments.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study (years not given) at a coral reef in Saint Croix, US Virgin Islands (2a) found that after transplanting wild-grown mustard hill coral Porites astreoides onto natural substrate most colonies survived, and that transplanting colonies to different depths to those they originated from had significant effects on growth and numbers of larvae produced. After 21 months, 87–100% of transplanted colonies survived. Average growth rates were higher for colonies transplanted to shallower sites (3.5 mm/year) and lower for colonies transplanted to deeper sites (1.7 mm/year) compared to those transplanted to their depth of origin (2.6 mm/year). Average larval production rates were higher for colonies transplanted to their depth of origin at shallow sites (11 larva/40 polyps) than for those transplanted to their depth of origin at deep sites (2.6 larva/40 polyps) or transplanted to deeper (4.4 larva/40 polyps) or shallower sites than their origin (4.5 larva/40 polyps). Thirty-two mustard hill coral colonies (each 7–15 cm diameter) were collected at each of two depths (9 and 24 m) and taken to a laboratory. Each colony was cut in half and stained with red dye for 36–48 h, before being transported back to the reef and transplanted onto natural substrate using underwater epoxy. One half of each colony was transplanted to the depth it was collected from, and the other to a new depth (9 or 24 m). After 21 months, survival was recorded. Growth and larvae numbers were assessed in the laboratory for 16–19 transplanted colonies/depth.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study (years not given) at a coral reef in Saint Croix, US Virgin Islands (2b) found that transplanting wild-grown mustard hill coral Porites astreoides colonies cut in half onto natural substrate led to similar survival, growth and larval production rates compared to when colonies were left intact when transplanted. After 21 months, the average percentage of surviving colonies was similar for cut (88–100%) and intact colonies (87–100%). Average growth and larval production rates were reported to be similar for cut (1.7–3.5 mm/year; 2.6–11 larva/40 polyps) and intact colonies (1.5–3.3 mm/year; 3.5–13 larva/40 polyps), although the results were not tested for statistical significance. Thirty-two mustard hill coral colonies (each 7–15 cm diameter) were collected at each of two depths (9 and 24 m), cut in half, and stained with red dye for 36–48 h in a laboratory. Intact colonies of a similar size were collected from the same depths (50–52 colonies/depth) and stained for 36 h in plastic bags anchored in a sand channel. Cut and intact colonies were transplanted onto natural substrate on the reef using underwater epoxy. Half were transplanted to the depth they were collected from, and half to a new depth (9 or 24 m). After 21 months, survival was recorded. Growth and larvae numbers were assessed in the laboratory for 58 cut and 69 intact colonies.
Study and other actions testedA study in 19971998 at two coral reef sites in Amakusa, Japan (Tioho et al. 2001) reported that transplanted stony coral Pocillopora damicornis fragments released larvae. Two weeks after larvae were released, average numbers of recruits ranged from 0.3–4.8/625 cm2 in 1997 and 0.1–5.6/625 cm2 in 1998. In February 1997, fifty Pocillopora damicornis colonies were collected from Ōshima Island and transplanted to an area of Satsuki where they had not previously been recorded. Colonies were attached to the rocky substrate using epoxy over a 10 m diameter area. Coral recruits were measured using quadrats two weeks after larval release in 1997 and new recruits (i.e. <2 cm) were recorded two weeks after larval release in 1998.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2000 at a coral reef near Sdot-Yam, Israel (Fine et al. 2002) found that exposing stony coral Oculina patagonica fragments to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation by transplanting to shallower depths led to a reduction in bleaching and Vibrio shiloi bacteria that cause bleaching compared to fragments transplanted deeper. Three months after transplanting, no bleaching was recorded on the fragments that remained at 0.8 m deep or fragments transplanted from 4 m deep to 0.8 m. Bleaching (approx. 5% of each colony) was recorded on 8% of intact colonies growing at 0.8 m. By contrast, >90% of fragments remaining at 4 m and intact colonies, and 100% of fragments transplanted from 0.8 m to 4 m showed bleaching (32–35% of surface area bleached). Vibrio shiloi was not detected in eight non-bleached fragments transplanted from 4 m to 0.8 m but was detected in the eight bleached fragments transplanted from 0.8 m to 4 m. In May 2000, two fragments (7 cm3) were taken from each of 24 Oculina patagonica colonies at 0.8 m and 4 m deep. Twenty-four fragments were each glued to the substrate at their original depth, the other 24 were swapped so fragments from 0.8 m were transplanted to 4 m and vice versa. Bleaching was monitored monthly for seven months. In August 2000, eight transplanted fragments from each depth were collected and examined for the presence of Vibrio shiloi.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 1997–2000 in five reefs in Hawaii, USA (Montgomery 2002) found that 19–25 months after transplanting onto natural substrate, black corals Antipathes ulex and Antipathes dichotoma had 0–70% survival and had reduced in height, and survival and growth were not affected by transplantation next to or far from their parent colony. Results were not tested for statistical significance. One transplanted Antipathes ulex fragment showed no growth during the survey period and died within 25 months. Nineteen or 24 months after transplantation, Antipathes dichotoma fragments transplanted next to their parent colony had 0–70% survival and an average height reduction of 64%, and fragments transplanted far from their parent colony had 56–70% survival and an average height reduction of 22–67%. In July 1997, one Antipathes ulex fragment was cut from its parent colony in Oahu, transplanted 2 m away at 46 m deep, and surveyed in October 1997, May 1998, August 1998 and June 1999. In June 1998, nineteen Antipathes dichotoma fragments were cut from their colony in Hawaii, 10 were transplanted 2 m away at 27 m deep and nine were transplanted 83 km away at 25 m deep, and both transplanted colonies were surveyed in June 2000 (24 months later). In July 1998, twenty Antipathes dichotoma fragments were cut from a colony in Maui, 10 were transplanted 2 m away at 34 m deep, 10 were transplanted elsewhere in Maui at 26 m deep (distance between sites not given), and both transplanted colonies were surveyed in April 2000 (19 months later). Transplanted fragments were attached to new substrate with cable ties and epoxy.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 1999–2000 at a coral rubble site in Bunaken National Park, North Sulawesi, Indonesia (Fox et al. 2003), found that attaching transplanted stony coral Acropora yongei fragments to pieces of coral rubble led to lower survival than fragments fixed to the substrate. Twelve months after attachment, the survival rate of fragments attached to pieces of coral rubble was lower (40%) than fragments fixed on the substrate (65%). In April 1999, one hundred and forty fragments (~10 cm long with 2–4 branches) were collected from a single wild Acropora. yongei colony. Eighty-two were attached to pieces of coral rubble using wire and were able to be moved by the current. Fifty-eight fragments were attached to PVC pipes with wire and cable ties and secured by being driven down to the level of the coral rubble. Survival of fragments was recorded six and 12 months after transplantation.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 1999–2001 in six marine sites in coastal Kenya (McClanahan et al. 2005), found mixed levels of short-term survival and growth of transplanted coral fragments in protected, unfished areas compared to unprotected, fished areas, with or without cages. Live cover of transplanted corals varied between fragment size and coral species, with massive Porites species experiencing the greatest losses among the four taxa (see paper for details). Live coral cover was higher at one out of three protected, no fishing sites (9%; 19% and 59%) than unprotected, fished reefs (5%; 12% and 19%). Growth of transplanted corals was generally higher at protected, no fishing sites (average 2.6cm) than at fished reefs (0.7cm). Cage presence for transplanted corals had no impact on their condition but turf algae cover was negatively associated with mortality of the transplanted coral fragments (see paper for details). Coral fragments (192 fragments 5–6-cm and 550 fragments 10–15-cm-long) of four scleractinian species (Porites spp., Pocillopora damicornis, Pavona decussata and Pavona frondifera) were removed with hammer and chisel from one site, immersed in aerated seawater in separate buckets, transported to site and immediately placed into a large underwater cage for 1–3 days before attachment with epoxy putty and later only masonry cement to the substratum. Transplanted corals were monitored for 22-35 days. Sites included three protected unfished sites (Malindi, Watamu, and Mombasa Marine National Parks). Some transplanted coral fragments (64 each in Marine National Park and fished reefs) were translocated inside cages for 14 days prior to removing the cages and exposing them to predators.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 1999–2001 at a coral reef at Akajima Island, Japan (Okubo et al. 2005) found that transplanting large fragments of stony coral Acropora formosa led to higher survival rates, growth, and spawning than medium and small fragments, and depended on vertical or horizontal orientation. After six months, large fragments had a higher survival rate (vertical: 100%; horizontal 94%) than medium (vertical: 91%; horizontal: 68%) and small fragments (vertical: 76%; horizontal: 30%) with most vertical fragments having a higher survival rate than horizontal (see paper for data). Survival after 18 months was higher for large fragments (vertical: 98%, horizontal: 92%) than medium (vertical 84%, horizontal: 0%) or small fragments (vertical: 29%, horizontal: 7%). Monthly growth rate was higher for large (5%) and medium (7%) vertical fragments compared to horizontal fragments (large: 4%; medium 4%), but there was no difference for small fragments (vertical: 5%; horizontal: 7%). A greater number of large vertical fragments spawned (81%) compared to medium (4%) and small vertical fragments (0%), and large vertical fragments had a higher spawning rate (81%) than large horizontal fragments (20%). In November 1999, six wild-growing Acropora formosa colonies each had 6–10 fragments taken in three different size classes (small: 5 cm; medium: 10 cm; large 20 cm). Fragments were transplanted 2–3 m deep, 15–20 m from the donor colonies, and attached either vertically or horizontally to the substrate using nails and cable ties. Survival and growth were measured every two months for 18 months. Spawning was recorded during May and June 2000, 2001, and 2002.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2000–2003 at a coral reef at Akajima Island, Japan (Okubo et al. 2005), found that transplanted stony coral Acropora formosa and Acropora hyacinthus fragments survived and spawned and small fragments of A. formosa had a higher growth rate than medium or large fragments. After 14–18 months, 87–100% of A. formosa and 100% of A. hyacinthus fragments had survived. Spawning rate ranged from 0–20% (small and medium fragments) and 46–100% (large) fragments of A. formosa, and 18% for A. hyacinthus fragments. Growth of small A. formosa fragments was higher (13–14%) than medium (6–7%) or large fragments (3–5%). In March and August 2000, six wild-growing A. formosa colonies each had 610 fragments taken in three different size classes (small: 5 cm; medium: 10 cm; large 20 cm). In February 2002, fragments were taken from 11 colonies of A. hyacinthus. All fragments were transplanted 2–3 m deep, 15–20 m from the donor colonies, and attached vertically to the substrate using nails and cable ties. Survival was monitored every two months for 14–18 months, spawning was recorded when it took place. Growth of A. formosa was measured after one year. Growth of A. hyacinthus could not be measured as many fragments died during a bleaching event in August 2002.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2001–2002 at a coral reef at Akajima Island, Japan (Okubo et al. 2005) found that stony coral Acropora hyacinthus fragments transplanted vertically had higher survival, greater attachment to the substrate, and higher numbers spawned, compared to fragments transplanted horizontally, but all fragments had new bud growth. After four months, survival of vertically attached fragments (45%) was higher than horizontally attached (20%), and after 14 months survival was higher for vertically attached fragments (32%) than for horizontally attached (2%). After two months, 80% of vertically attached fragments had fused to the substrate whereas none of the horizontal fragments had fused after one year. A small number of vertical fragments (0.4%) spawned but none of the horizontal fragments. New bud growth was observed on all surfaces of both vertical and horizontal fragments (data not reported). In July 2001, fragments (average width 5.1 × length 10.3 cm) were taken from 11 different A. hyacinthus colonies (see paper for methods). Fragments were transplanted 2–3 m deep, 15–20 m from the donor colonies. Half the fragments were attached vertically and half horizontally to the substrate using nails and cable ties. Survival and attachment to the substrate were monitored every two months for 14 months. Growth could not be measured as many fragments died during a bleaching event in August 2002.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2005 at three sites on a coral reef near Bolinao, north-western Philippines (Dizon et al. 2008) found that transplanting 11 stony and one non-stony coral nubbins (small fragments) onto natural substrate led to mixed results for survival and self-attachment (tissue growth onto the substrate) depending on species. After five months, a total of 310/540 (57%) nubbins were alive (>40% live tissue). There was a significant difference for survival rate after five months between species ranging from 98% (Pavona frondifera) to 18% (Pocillopora verrucosa). A total of 225/540 nubbins exhibited self-attachment (tissue growth over the adhesive and directly onto the substrate) and there was a significant difference in self-attachment rate between species ranging from 92% (Pavona frondifera) to 41% (Montipora digitata). In June and August 2005, a total of 540 coral nubbins (fragments 2-3 cm in length) were collected from 11 wild-grown stony and one non-stony coral colonies at three sites (see paper for full species list). Substrate was created using 15 giant clam half shells deployed at each of three sites (site 1 and 2 in June 2005, site 3 in August 2005) at a depth of 2 – 4 m. Twelve nubbins (one/ species – see original paper) were attached to each shell using marine epoxy, epoxy putty or cyanoacrylate glue (superglue). Fifteen shells were deployed at each of three sites. Survival and self-attachment were recorded every two weeks for five months (dates not given).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 1999–2004 at four reefs around St John’s Island, US Virgin Islands (Garrison & Ward 2008), found that transplanting storm-generated fragments of elkhorn Acropora palmata, staghorn Acropora cervicornis and finger Porites porites corals onto degraded coral substrate led to mixed results for survival compared to existing coral colonies. After five years, survival of transplanted elkhorn coral (20%) was lower than existing (53%) corals, but staghorn (transplanted: 0%, existing: 6%) and finger (transplanted: 27%, existing: 13%) corals did not differ significantly from existing coral. In July 1999, storm-generated fragments of elkhorn (15), staghorn (30) and finger (15) corals were collected from 1–3 m deep at two sites. These were transported 1–5 km to recipient reefs and attached to dead, upright coral skeletons (mostly elkhorn) using nylon cable ties. Fragments were placed near existing colonies of the same species for comparison (15 elkhorn, 45 staghorn and 15 finger corals). Each colony was photographed, sketched, and live tissue on each branch and base was measured every six months from 1999–2001 then annually until 2004. Dead or detached colonies were removed from the analysis. Transplantation cost $1,250 (2008 value), including materials, boat and scuba, and salary ($21/transplant with and $5/transplant without salary costs).
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2004–2005 in two sites Viosca Knoll, Gulf of Mexico, USA (Brooke & Young 2009) found that transplanting fragments of deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa on to reefs with existing coral coverage did not result in higher survival, growth rate or number of new polyps than corals transplanted onto bare rock without existing coral. Thirteen and a half months after transplanting, survival rate was the same for fragments transplanted into areas with existing coral or onto bare rock (both 91% survival). Similarly, there was no significant difference in total linear growth (existing: 20 mm, bare rock: 11 mm), average growth/polyp (existing: 4 mm, bare rock: 3 mm) or the average number of new polyps/fragment (existing: 3.3, bare rock: 3.5). In July 2004, fragments of deep-water coral were collected from Viosca Knoll. Thirty-two fragments each with 10–20 polyps were stained using red dye and photographed before being fixed into a 2 cm PVC pipe using cement. Fragments were attached to frames (4/frame) before being transferred to the transplant sites. Four frames were placed 460 m deep in an area with existing coral coverage and four frames were placed 507 m deep on bare rock ~0.25 km from the other site. Fragments were removed after 13.5 months. Survival was recorded and the number of new polyps counted. Growth was measured using photographs.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 2000–2002 in four areas of a coral reef in Luzon, Philippines (Yap 2009) found that 9–27 months after Acropora and Porites stony corals were transplanted onto natural substrate, 83–94% survived, but plots with and without transplanted corals had similar numbers of new coral colonies. Nine to 27 months after transplantation, 94% of Acropora palifera, 85% of Porites lobata and 83% of Porites cylindrica colonies survived. Plots where corals were transplanted had similar average numbers of new coral colonies (0.62) to interspersed plots without transplantation (0.88) and plots 100 m away without transplantation (0.51). All three had lower numbers of new coral colonies than plots at a nearby healthy reef from which the transplanted corals had been sourced (10.39). Each of four sites of rocky seabed had eighteen 1 m2 plots: six with transplanted corals and six without corals (interspersed amongst each other), six 100 m away without corals, and six at the transplanted coral source site (a healthy reef). Between April 2000 and November 2001, colonies of three coral species were chiselled from a nearby healthy reef and at each transplantation plot either attached directly to the rock with cement or tied to plastic screens covering the plots: Acropora palifera (5–19 cm diameter, 2/plot), Porites cylindrica (11–30 cm diameter, 2/plot), and Porites lobata (7–19 cm diameter, 3/plot). From January 2001–July 2002 (9–27 months after transplanting), survival and new coral colonies were recorded during visual census by divers in all experimental plots every 3–4 months.
Study and other actions testedA randomized, replicated study in 2006–2007 at a coral reef in Florida, USA (Williams & Miller 2010) reported that stabilizing transplanted wild-grown elkhorn coral Acoropora palmata fragments led to better ‘performance’ than unstabilized fragments and there was no difference between attachment methods for stabilized fragments. Forty-four weeks after transplanting, more stabilized fragments were classed as ‘best-performing’ (8/18 attached with cable-ties, 10/18 epoxied) compared to unstabilized fragments (0/18). Fewer stabilized fragments were classed as ‘worst-performing’ (4/18 for cable-tied and epoxied) compared to unstabilized fragments (10/18) and fewer stabilized were classed as ‘intermediate performing’ (cable-tied: 6/18; epoxied: 4/10) than unstabilized (8/18). For stabilized fragments there was no difference in performance between cable-tied and epoxied fragments. In August 2006, fifty-four naturally occurring elkhorn coral fragments (<40 cm) were collected from 3 m deep and taken to a reef ~350 m away. Fragments were placed in groups of three according to size and % live tissue coverage (18 groups) and randomly assigned to be stabilized (attached with cable-tie or epoxy) or unstabilized (tethered to substrate using a 1 m line). The substrate was cleared of sediment and micro-algae before attachment. Fragments were monitored after 7, 24, and 44 weeks, and any unstable fragments were reattached at seven weeks. After 44 weeks, fragments were categorized as performing worst (including lost or dead fragments); intermediate; or best, according to the % live tissue and % natural attachment to the substrate (category parameters not reported).
Study and other actions testedA controlled study in 2005–2009 at four coral patch-reef sites near Guana Island, British Virgin Islands (14a), found that transplanting storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata onto natural substrate led to a greater survival and increased surface area of live tissue compared to fragments left unattached. After one year, 28 of 35 (80%) transplanted fragments survived compared with one of seven (14%) unattached fragments. All unattached fragments were dead after two years. After four years, 14 of 35 (40%) transplanted fragments were alive and the average surface area of live tissue had increased by 1,160% to reach 1,453 cm2. In July–November 2005, thirty-five fragments of elkhorn coral that had become naturally detached were transplanted onto four patch-reef restoration sites 0.4–3.6 km away. Fragments were attached onto limestone and coral rubble substrate 0.4–1.6 m deep using epoxy resin, ensuring live tissue contacted the attachment surface. Seven fragments were left unattached at the original site. Survival was recorded and surface area of live tissue measured using photographs annually for four years.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 2007–2009 at coral patch-reef sites near Guana Island, British Virgin Islands (14b), found transplanting storm-generated fragments of elkhorn Acropora palmata coral onto natural substrate at a new site did not lead to higher survival or increased live tissue growth compared to fragments transplanted at their original site. There was no significant difference in survival rate, one year after transplanting, between new site (2007: 30%; 2008: 54%) and original site fragments (2007: 56%; 2008: 62%). There was also no significant difference in increase of live tissue between new site (2007: 413%; 2008: 80%) versus original site fragments (2007: 322%; 2008: 111%). In July–August 2007 and 2008, storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral were collected from patch-reefs. Thirty fragments (collected in 2007) and 167 (collected in 2008) were transplanted at reef restoration sites 0.4–3.6 km away, and 27 (collected in 2007) and 70 (collected in 2008) were transplanted at the original collection site. Fragments were either attached to bare reef or dead coral skeletons, using cable ties, marine epoxy or cement, ensuring live tissue was in contact with the attachment surface. Survival was recorded after one year and growth measured after two and 12 months using scaled photographs.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, randomized study in 2010–2011 in the British Virgin Islands (Forrester et al. 2012), found that storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata transplanted onto natural substrate at a new site had higher levels of bleaching and tissue loss than fragments transplanted within the original site or established fragments transplanted two years before, but growth was lower for same-site than new-site or established fragments. After 10-16 days, a higher number of new-site fragments (57/84) showed some bleaching (>0%) compared to original-site ([figure shows] 9/45) and established fragments (9/45). The number of new-site fragments showing some tissue loss (>0%) was higher (72/84) than original-site (26/48) and established (24/45) fragments. After three months, long-term tissue loss as a percentage of the original fragment size was greater in original-site (68% tissue loss) compared to new-site (37%) and established (28%) fragments. In July-August 2010, one-hundred-and-thirty-two storm-generated elkhorn fragments were collected from two sites in the British Virgin Islands (Harris Ghut and Little Camanhoe). Eighty-four fragments were randomly selected and transplanted to an existing restoration site at White Bay and attached to the substrate using cable-ties. Remaining fragments were re-attached to the substrate at their original site (22 at Harris Ghut, 26 at Little Camanhoe) using cable-ties. As a comparison, 45 fragments that had been transplanted in July – August 2008 at White Bay were surveyed. Percentage tissue loss and bleaching was recorded after 2-4 days for new-site fragments and 10-16 days after transplanting for all fragments. Growth was measured using photographs after three months. Hurricane Earl affected the area in September 2010 – two weeks after transplanting.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2010–2011 in the British Virgin Islands (Forrester et al. 2012), found that transplanting storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata outside known damselfish Stegastes planifrons territory did not result in less tissue loss or bleaching than fragments transplanted inside territories. After 10 – 16 days, there was no significant difference in the number of fragments showing some tissue loss between newly or established transplanted fragments inside (new transplants: 21/25, 84%; established transplants: 8/13, 62%) or outside damselfish territory (new: 51/59, 86%; established: 16/32, 50%). There was also no significant difference in the number of fragments showing some bleaching inside (new: 13/25, 52%; established: 3/13, 23%,) or outside damselfish territory (new: 44/59, 75%; established: 16/32, 19%). In July-August 2010, eighty-four storm-generated elkhorn fragments were collected from two sites in the British Virgin Islands (Harris Ghut and Little Camanhoe) and transplanted to an existing restoration site at White Bay. Fragments were attached to the substrate using cable ties either inside (25) or outside (59) known damselfish territories. As a comparison, 45 fragments that had been transplanted in July–August 2008 at White Bay were surveyed. Of those, 13 were inside and 32 outside damselfish territories. Percentage tissue loss and bleaching were visually assessed after 10–16 days and recorded on a 0-5 scale. Hurricane Earl affected the area in September 2010 – two weeks after transplanting.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired study in 2011–2012 at a coral reef near Guana Island, British Virgin Islands (Forrester et al. 2013a), found that transplanting elkhorn coral Acropora palmata fragments broken into smaller pieces led to lower growth and survival compared to fragments left intact. One year after transplanting, the % change in colony size (cm2) was lower for broken (49%) compared to intact fragments (97%). After one year, survival rate for broken fragments was lower (90/138, 65%) than intact fragments (45/55, 82%). In August 2011, one hundred and ten elkhorn fragments were collected from two sites (Harris Ghut and Great Camanoe). Average fragment size was 233 cm2. Fragments were paired by size and one fragment/pair was broken into 25 pieces and the other was left intact. Each pair was placed close together (0.34.5 m apart) and the individual fragments were attached to the reef, 0.4–1.6 m deep, using nylon cable ties. Colony growth and survival were measured after three- and 12-months using photographs and image analysis software.
Study and other actions testedA study in 2007–2008 and 2010–2011 at four coral reef sites near Guana Island, British Virgin Islands (Forrester et al. 2013b) found that transplanting storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata onto natural substrate led to live tissue growth for fragments from two of three collection sites. One year after transplanting, live tissue surface area of fragments collected from two sites increased by an average of 67–304%, whilst fragments collected from a third site decreased by an average of 38%. In July–August 2007 and 2010, storm-generated elkhorn coral fragments were collected on 1–2 occasions from three reefs (7–45 fragments/reef) and transplanted at a reef restoration site. Fragments were attached to bare reef or dead coral skeletons using cable ties or marine epoxy. Attachment sites were scraped with a wire brush prior to transplanting to remove macroalgae. Growth (surface area of live tissue) was measured using photographs immediately after transplanting and 12 months later.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired study in 2007–2011 at four coral reef sites near Guana Island, British Virgin Islands (Forrester et al. 2013b) found that transplanting storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata onto natural substrate at a new site led to slower live tissue growth or a reduction in live tissue compared to fragments transplanted at their original site. One year after transplanting, average increases in live tissue surface area for three fragment groups were lower at the new site (40–283%) than at original sites (218–349%). For one fragment group, live tissue surface area decreased by an average of 34% at the new site and increased by 135% at the original site. In July–August 2007, 2008, and 2010, four groups of storm-generated elkhorn coral fragments were collected from three reefs (14–32 fragments/reef). Each fragment was split into two sub-fragments using a hammer and chisel. One sub-fragment was reattached at the original collection site, and the other transplanted at a reef restoration site. Fragments were attached to bare reef or dead coral skeletons using cable ties or marine epoxy. Attachment sites were scraped with a wire brush prior to transplanting to remove macroalgae. Growth (surface area of live tissue) was measured using photographs immediately after transplanting and 12 months later.
Study and other actions testedA study in 2005–2012 at a coral reef site off Guana Island, British Virgin Islands (Forrester et al. 2014) found that transplanted storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata survived and grew. Twelve months after transplanting, survival rate for each group of transplants was at least 50% (range: 50 – 85%) and remained relatively constant until 2012 (results presented as log survival). Survival was lower for the groups of fragments transplanted in 2007 (21%) and 2010 (30%) due to severe storms. After three months, average fragment size across all groups had decreased from 108 cm2 to 92 cm2 then increased to 156 cm2 after 12 months, reaching 2064 cm2 after 72 months. Data were not statistically tested. In July-August 2005–2011, a total of 832 storm-generated fragments of elkhorn coral were collected from reefs within 4 km of the transplant site. Fragments ranged from 2–1016 cm2 (average 108 cm2). Groups (ranging from 19–257 fragments) were transplanted to a nearby restoration site on the leeward side of Guana Island. Fragments were fixed to the reef 0.4–1.6 m deep using nylon cable ties, or marine epoxy, or hydrostatic cement. Survival and growth (surface area live tissue) were recorded three and 12 months after transplanting and then annually until 2012.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in 2010–2012 in three coral-reef sites in Pangasinan, Philippines (dela Cruz et al. 2014) found that staghorn coral Acropora pulchra and Acropora intermedia fragments transplanted onto natural substrate grew more quickly, but had similar survival, when attached at high rather than low density. Twelve months after transplantation, corals attached at high density had grown faster (Acropora pulchra: 1,646 cm3/month, Acropora intermedia: 1,115 cm3/month) than corals at low density (Acropora pulchra: 1,125 cm3/month, Acropora intermedia: 824 cm3/month). Survival after 19 months did not differ between high- and low-density plots (68–89%), but Acropora pulchra had higher average survival (85%) than Acropora intermedia (72%), regardless of density. Three clusters (>50 m apart) of three 4-m2 experimental plots were demarcated on a degraded 2–3 m deep back-reef. Within each cluster in July 2010, fifty fragments each of Acropora pulchra and Acropora intermedia were transplanted in one plot (high density), 25 fragments of each were transplanted in another plot (low density), and no fragments were transplanted in a third control plot. Fragments (>25 cm) had been cut from a reef 21 km away a few days prior. They were then inserted into the sand and tethered with wire to a 40 cm bamboo stake driven halfway into the sand. Every two months for a year, and then once after 19 months, survival was monitored, and 10 fragments of each species/plot were measured. Transplantation cost $0.90 USD/m2 (2010 value), including collection and transplantation tools and boat fuel, but not boat rental, labour or snorkelling gear (provided for free by volunteers).
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2006–2007 at two coral reef sites in a lagoon in northwestern Philippines (Gomez et al. 2014) found that survival and growth of stony coral Porites cylindrica fragments transplanted onto natural substrate varied depending on density, and attachment orientation. Survival rate after 20 months ranged from 80–89% at Malilnep and 94–98% at Binlab. Survival differed between sites only for transplants placed horizontally at low density (Malilnep: 89%, Binlab: 96% survival). Overall vertical growth did not vary significantly between sites (Malilnep: 1.5–3.5; Binlab: 2.2–4.5 mm/30 days; (data reported from figures, which do not match data in text). Radial growth was higher for horizontally placed transplants (1.2–2.3 mm/30 days) compared to vertically placed (1.0–2.1 mm/30 days) irrespective of density or site. In March 2006, nine hundred and sixty, mostly loose, fragments of Porites cylindrica (4–6 cm) were collected from a single bommie (coral outcrop) within the lagoon. Fragments were transplanted onto three other bommies selected at each of two sites with substrate comprising either dead massive Porites corals or solid substrate (Malilnep) or dead branching Porites corals or perforated substrate (Binlab) (no other substrate information provided). Fragments were placed into a depression created in the substrate of the bommies and secured using marine epoxy clay. Forty fragments were each placed either horizontally or vertically and at low density (30 cm apart) or high density (15 cm apart; total 160 fragments) on each of the three bommies at each site (480 fragments/site). From March 2006–October 2007, survival was monitored bi-monthly, height was measured every three months and radial growth was determined every six months.
Study and other actions testedA study in 2006–2014 at a damaged coral reef site in Tallaboa, Puerto Rico (Griffin et al. 2015) reported that following transplanting of loose fragments of staghorn Acropora cervicornis coral, along with nursery-grown fragments, onto stabilized natural substrate, fragment survived, attached to the substrate and the area of restored reef increased. After eight years, the area of restored reef had grown from 70 m2 to 180 m2. Coral colonies in unrestored areas in the vicinity, with loose rubble and damaged substrate, showed no signs of recovery during the same period. It was not possible to determine from the study how much of the recovery was attributable to transplanting loose fragments, transplanting nursery-grown fragments, or stabilizing the substrate. In 2006, following the destruction of a coral reef by a ship grounding, wire cages and metal stakes were used to stabilize a 70 m2 area of damaged reef. Approximately 227 (10-20 cm) fragments of staghorn coral were collected from nearby reefs and attached to the substrate using cement puddles. In 2009–2011, approximately 400 (20–40 cm) fragments of staghorn coral were collected from a nursery and attached to the substrate using masonry nails, cable ties and/or epoxy. Coral recovery was measured using aerial imagery in 2014. No other methods are reported.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2008–2009 at two sites of degraded coral reef at Bolinao, northwestern Philippines (Cabaitan et al. 2015) found that transplanting wild grown fragments of stony coral Pavona frondifera and Porites cylindrica onto natural substrate in mixed compared to single-species groups resulted in mixed results for survival and growth depending on species and site. After 12 months, Pavona frondifera survival was higher in mixed-species (9%) compared to single-species groups (0%) at Malilnep, but similar at Binlab (mixed: 51%, single: 63%). Porites cylindrica survival was similar for mixed and single species groups at both sites (mixed: 87 and 91%, single: 97 and 82%). For Pavona frondifera, average monthly linear growth did not differ significantly after 12 months between mixed or single-species groups at Binlab (range mixed: 7.3–9.1, single: 7.9–10.2 mm/30 days), but at Malilnep all Pavona frondifera fragments had died by August 2008. After 12 months, average monthly linear growth of Porites cylindrica, was similar for mixed and single species groups at both sites (range Binlab mixed: 9.4–17.8, single: 8.5–12.3; Malilnep mixed: 8.8–24.4, single 11.3–18.1 mm/30 days). Over 12 months at Binlab average monthly radial growth of Pavona frondifera was similar for mixed and single species groups (range mixed: 0.8–1.3, single 0.9–1.3 mm/30 days) but higher for Porites cylindrica in mixed-species (range 2.4–2.5 mm) compared to single-species groups (range 1.6–1.7 mm), but similar at Malilnep (range mixed: 1.9–4.2, single: 2.0–2.7 mm/30 days). In 2008, fragments of Pavona frondifera and Porites cylindrica were collected from areas of degraded reef at Malilnep and Binlab or taken from live coral colonies on site. Three areas (1–3 m deep) were selected at each site, each with three plots. Each plot contained either 40 fragments of Porites cylindrica, 40 of Pavona frondifera or 40 each of both species (mixed group) attached to the dead coral substrate using epoxy clay putty. Over 12 months, survival was monitored monthly for three months then every three months, linear growth (mm/30 days) every three months and radial growth (mm/30 days) every six months.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2013–2015 at a coral reef in Playa Las Gatas, Mexico (Nava & Figueroa-Camacho 2017) found recently broken fragments of stony coral transplanted onto natural substrate had greater survival, growth, and attachment compared to healed fragments. Twelve or 13 months after transplanting, survival rate was higher in both rainy and dry seasons for recently broken (dry: 91%, rainy: 63%) compared to healed fragments (dry: 63%, rainy: 46%). Vertical growth was higher for recently broken (dry: 161%, rainy: 210%) compared to healed fragments (dry: 88%, rainy: 124%). Horizontal growth was greater for recently broken (dry and rainy: 107%) compared to healed fragments (dry: 73%, rainy: 100%). Substrate attachment in the dry season was higher and happened faster for recently broken fragments (98% in nine months) compared to healed (86% in 12 months). There was no difference in attachment rate after 12 months for fragments transplanted in the rainy season (broken: 89%, healed: 84%). In November 2013 (dry) and August 2014 (rainy), 250 randomly selected naturally broken fragments of Pocillopora verrucosa, Pocillopora capitata and Pocillopora damicornis were collected from around Playa Las Gatas. Fragments were assessed as ‘recently broken’ (no signs of healing) or ‘completely healed’ (healed at their breaking point). Twenty-five fragments were attached one of ten 15 × 15 cm steel grids (one fragment type/grid) using plastic strips. Grids were fixed to one of ten 1 m3 boulders ensuring fragments touched the boulder. Survival, vertical and horizontal growth (% increase) and attachment (% fused to the substrate), were monitored every 2–3 months for 12 or 13 months.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2003–2015 on a rocky substrate in the north-western Mediterranean (Montero-Serra et al. 2018) found that transplanted red coral Corallium rubrum showed similar survival, growth, and reproductive potential to natural colonies. Four years after transplanting, 99% of transplanted red coral colonies survived and the average annual survival rate, of 100% was similar to natural populations (100%). Most transplanted red coral colonies were <35 mm in height and there was no significant difference between transplanted and natural red coral growth rates (data reported on log scale). There was no significant difference in the proportion of fertile colonies (transplanted: 28%; natural 33%) or the average number of larvae/polyp (transplanted: 0.37; natural 0.28). In 2011, authorities seized 14.5 kg of illegally harvested red coral. Approximately 300 colonies from this seizure were transplanted onto a rocky wall, 15–17 m deep, and attached using epoxy putty. Four transect surveys were carried out immediately after transplanting, in May 2011, then again four years later. Survival rates were recorded using photographs. In June 2015, reproductive potential was measured by counting red coral larvae inside polyps of fertile females from a sample of 35 transplanted colonies and 35 adjacent natural colonies. Survival rates of natural red coral colonies were calculated using long-term data (2003–2011) on eight natural populations.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 2012–2013 at two coral reef sites on the Granada coast, southern Spain (Terrón-Sigler et al. 2018) found transplanting fragments of orange coral Asteroides calycularis onto natural substrate within the same site resulted in a higher survival rate, but not area growth or the number of polyps that developed, than fragments transplanted to a different site and, at one site higher than colonies left intact. After 12 months, survival rate of same-site transplants was higher (88% and 86%) compared to different-site transplants (81% and 64%), and higher at one site than intact coral (78% and 90%). There was a significant difference in average overall growth between sites (Punta del Vapor: 3.3 cm2; Punta de la Mona: 5.2 cm2) but not in average area growth between same-site, different-site and intact coral (range after six months: same 3.0–4.0; different 2.4–4.0 cm2; intact 0.8–5.0 cm2, after 12 months: same 0.2–1.3; different 0.2–0.6; intact 0.8–1.3 cm2), or the average number of polyps that developed (range after six months: same 7.0–7.7; different 7.7–17.0; intact 2.6–18.0, after 12 months same 2.2–7.0; different 2.4–7.7; intact 0.6–2.7. In July 2012, three areas (8 m deep) were selected at each of two sites. Thirty-six fragments of orange coral were collected from colonies at each site, 18 of these were transplanted in their original site (same site), 18 were swapped between the two sites (different site) and an additional 18 remained in place (intact). Fragments were secured to the substrate using marine epoxy resin. Survival, area growth and the number of polyps that developed was measured after six and 12 months.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2017–2018 off Whitsunday Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (McLeod et al. 2019) found that following transplanting displaced column-shaped coral outcrops (‘bommies’) of stony coral Porites species colonies onto natural substrate, some live tissue was retained. Sixteen months after bommies were transplanted, coverage of original live tissue ranged from 0–20% (average 6%) with 16 of the 22 bommies surveyed still retaining some live tissue. In March 2017, a cyclone dislodged bommies of Porites species colonies (1–3 m diameter) and deposited them on the intertidal zone. In June 2017 heavy machinery was used to transplant 22 bommies back into the subtidal region. Divers surveyed coral bommies in October 2018, recording live tissue coverage (%).
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2018–2019 in three sites in the north-western Mediterranean off Cap de Creus, Spain (Montseny et al. 2021) found that after transplanting corals Eunicella cavolini onto natural substrate by dropping them from a boat, at one site 84–90% landed upright, whereas at the other two sites corals were obscured by seagrass Posidonia oceanica or fine sediments. Surveys at one site in 2019 detected 460 of the 526 corals (88%) that were transplanted in 2018–2019, across an area of 0.23 hectares. For corals transplanted on natural cobbles, 89% landed upright, and for those transplanted on artificial cobbles it was 73%. At the other two sites all corals were obscured by either seagrass or fine sediments. In 2018–2019, a total of 805 coral colonies were recovered from trammel nets (468 in 2018, 337 in 2019). Corals were held in aquaria for a few weeks to three months, fragmented into nubbins and attached to either natural cobbles (693) or artificial concrete cobbles (133) via a drilled hole and epoxy putty. In 2018, corals were released into the water at one of three locations (150–151/location; 80–120 m depth), and in 2019, all corals were released at one location (375; all on natural cobbles). In November 2018 and September 2019, surveys were conducted using an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) with onboard cameras. Full costs of the transplants and monitoring (including all staff costs) was €106,783 (see original paper for cost breakdown).
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2018–2019 at three reefs in the southwestern Gulf of California (Martínez-Sarabia & Reyes-Bonilla 2021) reported that when Pocillopora corals were transplanted in areas with high numbers of crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster cf. solaris, mortality varied from 39–88%. Fragment mortality was 39–88% (out of 192–200 fragments), and on average, fragments survived for 134–197 days. The site with highest mortality (88%) had a higher abundance of starfish (0.3 individuals/m2) than at the other two sites (0.08–0.09 individuals/m2). At each study site, 5 cm fragments were transplanted to plots (50 × 25 m) and fixed to the substrate using plastic straps and epoxy at depths of 2–9 m (192–200 fragments/site). Each site was visited five times over 12–15 months to assess survival of coral fragments. The number of starfish was also recorded during these visits.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2018–2019 at six coral reef sites off Mauritius (Tiddy et al. 2021) found that some Porites lutea transplanted onto natural substrates survived and had similar predator bite density and surface damage as corals left in-situ. Twenty-eight of 55 (51%) transplanted colonies were lost or died. Transplanted and in-situ corals had similar predator bite density (transplanted: 0.3–0.7 bites/cm2, in-situ: 0.2–0.6 bites/cm2) and surface area damage (transplanted: 11–33%, in-situ: 8–32%). In addition, bite density and surface area damage were lower for corals transplanted to damselfish Stegastes spp. territories (bite density: 0.3–0.4 bites/cm2, surface damage: 11–20%) compared to outside territories (bite density: 0.7 cm2, surface damage: 33%). A total of 55 colonies were transplanted. Ten colonies were transplanted to each of three sites containing damselfish territories, and a further 25 colonies were transplanted to adjacent degraded areas with no damselfish territories (5–10 colonies/area). Colonies were transplanted whole (80 cm2 average surface area) and placed directly among the branches of Acropora muricata colonies. Transplanted colonies were monitored in February–March, April, and June 2019 to assess survival and predation. A total of 651 in-situ corals were also monitored across six sites every two months from September 2018 to June 2019.
Study and other actions tested
Where has this evidence come from?
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This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:
Coral ConservationRelated Actions
| Actions | Effectiveness | Studies | Category | |
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Transplant wild-grown coral onto artificial substrate Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 24 |
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Transplant nursery-grown coral fragments onto artificial substrate Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 15 |
Synopsis Link |
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Transplant wild grown coral onto natural substrate Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 37 |
Synopsis Link |
Coral Conservation - Published 2024
Coral synopsis
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