Transplant nursery-grown coral fragments onto artificial substrate
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Overall effectiveness category Awaiting assessment
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Number of studies: 15
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Supporting evidence from individual studies
A controlled study in 1997–1998 on a coral reef in Eilat, Israel (Epstein et al. 2001) found that nursery-grown stony coral Stylophora pistillata branches transplanted onto plastic crates had higher survival than those transplanted onto cement tiles, and fragments on plastic crates produced eggs but there was no difference in survival between branches transplanted onto plastic crates placed at 5 m or 10 m depth. After six months, there was higher survival of coral branches transplanted onto plastic crates (83%) than those transplanted onto cement tiles (25%). After 18 months, survival of branches on crates was 60% (survival on tiles not recorded). Of branches on crates, there was no difference in survival between those at 5 m and 10 m (data not provided). All branches removed from their colonies during larval release had eggs 18 months after removal (0.8–1.5 eggs/polyp), and 67% removed during gonad development had eggs 12 months after removal (0–1.8 eggs/polyp). In 1997, Stylophora pistillata coral branches were cut from 5–10 m depth in-situ donor colonies at the Marine Biology Laboratory (MBL) in the Red Sea, either during larval release (April) or during gonad development (October). A total of 310 branches (~60 branches/crate) were placed on plastic crates (1 × 0.5 × 0.4 m, with 1 cm2 mesh), which were fastened to the reef at MBL at 5 m (two crates) or 10 m depth (three crates). Sixty branches were attached to clips glued onto cement tiles (10 branches/tile), which were attached either 0.5 m above or directly onto the reef at a depth of 10–12 m. One to three branches from the April and October removals placed on crates were removed in November 1998 (18 and 12 months after removal, respectively), and inspected for female gonads to determine reproductive status. Survival of corals on tiles was recorded at one, three and six months, whereas survival of corals on crates was recorded at six, 12 and 18 months.
Study and other actions testedA randomized, replicated study in 1996–1999 at a coral reef site in Florida, USA (Becker & Mueller 2001), found overall skeletal growth of nursery-grown colonies of Montastraea faveolata transplanted onto ceramic pedestals on the reef was higher in the second year after transplanting compared to the first year, but there was no difference in skeletal growth between fragments attached horizontally, vertically or in between. Skeletal growth was higher in the second year after transplanting (65.1 mg/day) compared to the first (32.2 mg/day). There was no difference in skeletal growth between transplanted colonies attached to the reef horizontally, vertically, or in between (data not reported). In May 1996, twelve cores (5.1 cm diameter) were taken from each of three wild-growing colonies of Montastraea faveolata and transported back to a land-based aquarium. Cores were fixed to mushroom-shaped ceramic pedestals using epoxy before being placed into aquarium tanks. After one year, pedestals were taken to a nearby degraded natural reef and transplanted into holes drilled into the substrate and secured using epoxy. Pedestals were randomly assigned to be transplanted horizontally, vertically, or in between. In May 1998 and May 1999 pedestals were removed from the site and taken to the lab to be weighed.
Study and other actions testedA randomized, replicated study in 1997–1999 at a natural reef and an aquarium in Florida, USA (Becker & Mueller 2001), found that transplanting fragments of stony coral Montastraea faveolata onto ceramic pedestals and staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis onto limestone blocks then onto an array on a natural reef led to longer survival than fragments of either species transplanted directly onto the natural reef substrate or in an aquarium. After 21 months, survival of Montastraea faveolata was higher for fragments on ceramic pedestals on the array (8/12 survived) compared to those on pedestals placed directly onto the reef substrate (1/12) or in an aquarium (3/12). There was no statistical difference in survival between direct natural reef and aquarium fragments of Montastraea faveolata. After 18 months, survival of staghorn coral was higher for those on limestone blocks on the array (2/12) compared to on limestone block in the aquarium (0/12), but no difference compared to fragments on limestone blocks placed directly onto the reef substrate (7/12). In August 1997, twelve 2.5 cm cores were taken from each of three colonies of Montastraea faveolata and attached to mushroom-shaped ceramic pedestals using epoxy. In November 1997, twelve fragments (~7 cm long) were taken from each of three colonies of staghorn coral and fixed to limestone blocks. Corals attached to ceramic pedestals or limestone blocks were randomly selected to be placed on a 5.5 m deep array (no detail provided) or placed directly onto the natural reef substrate or placed in the aquarium. Survival was recorded every three months for 21 months (Montastraea faveolata) and 18 months (staghorn coral).
Study and other actions testedA randomized, replicated study in 1997–1998 at a laboratory and natural coral reef in central Philippines (Raymundo & Maypa 2004), found that transplanting larger nursery-grown juvenile stony coral Pocillorpora damicornis onto limestone settlement tiles led to higher survival and growth rate than smaller juveniles. One year after transplanting, juvenile survival rate was highest (40/80) for the largest size class, compared to the next largest (16/80), the third largest (2/80), and smallest (0/80). Average size after one year also varied depending on the size at transplant (largest: 51 mm; next largest: 26 mm; third largest 8 mm; smallest: 0 mm). Each four months between February and July 1997, five Pocillorpora damicornis colonies were collected from the wild and kept in laboratory aquarium tanks to spawn. Larvae were collected and placed into tanks to settle onto limestone settlement tiles (48 cm2). Eighty settled larvae/month were placed into cultivation tanks with flowing unfiltered seawater. In August 1997, three hundred and twenty juvenile corals attached to individual tiles were measured and sorted into one of four size classes (≤3 mm; 3.1–6.0 mm; 6.1–10 mm; >10 mm). Tiles were taken to the reef and attached to the substrate 4 m deep using marine epoxy. Survival and growth of juveniles were monitored for one year after transplanting.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 1998 in a lagoon in Pangasinan, Philippines (Yap 2004) found that nursery-grown stony coral Porites rus fragments transplanted onto a reef on metal grids had higher survival than fragments removed from their grids and transplanted directly onto live or dead Porites cylindrica colonies, and no Porites cylindrica fragments survived transplantation. After 14 weeks, Porites rus fragments attached to the reef on metal grids had the highest survival (86%), and of those removed from their grids, those transplanted onto live Porites cylindrica colonies had higher survival (44%) than those transplanted onto dead colonies (11%). No Porites cylindrica fragments using any of the three transplantation methods survived. In 1996, twenty-eight Porites cylindrica and 25 Porites rus fragments were obtained from a reef 1 km from the experiment site, attached to 1 m2 metal grids coated in white epoxy paint, and allowed to grow at 2–3 m depth. In June 1998 the fragments were transplanted onto three different substrates: remaining on the grids which were suspended 40 cm above the sandy substrate on metal stakes, or removed from the grids and tied onto existing live or dead Porites cylindrica colonies with plastic-coated copper wire. The three treatments were replicated at three sites (number of fragments/site not provided). Fragments were monitored every two weeks for 14 weeks.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2004 at an artificial and natural coral reef site in Eilat, Israel (Perkol-Finkel & Benayahu 2009) found that survival was higher for soft coral Dendronephthya hemprichi and stony coral Pocillopora damicornis fragments transplanted onto PVC plates on an artificial reef compared to on an adjacent natural reef, but there was no difference for fragments transplanted in different orientations or directions. After 20 days, fragments on the artificial reef had a higher survival rate (soft coral: 73%; stony coral 87%) than fragments on the natural reef (soft coral: 44%; stony coral: 24%). There was no difference in survival between soft coral fragments on horizontal plates compared to vertical, or inward rather than outward facing plate surfaces (horizontal: inner 81%, outer 66%; vertical: inner 66%, outer 71%). In February 2004, small fragments (0.5 cm) of nursery-grown soft coral Dendronephthya hemprichi (6–10 colonies/plate) and stony coral (4/plate) Pocillopora damicornis were fixed to four (soft coral) or five (stony coral) PVC plates using superglue. Plates were fixed to 400 × 20 × 10 cm metal racks either horizontally or vertically and attached to the outward (away from the reef) or inward (towards the reef) facing side of the rack. Racks were attached, 14 m deep, to the artificial reef (comprising a PVC fence anchored to the sea floor) or adjacent natural reef. Survival was checked on each plate after 1, 2, 4, 6, 13, and 20 days.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 2007 near a coral reef in Bolinao, northwestern Philippines (Villanueva et al. 2010) found that transplanting stony coral fragments on concrete reef structures at higher densities (with or without topshell snails Trochus niloticus added) did not lead to higher natural coral settlement. Five months after transplanting, there was no significant difference in the average density of coral spat (settled larvae) on structures with fragments transplanted at high density (with topshells: 8/m2; without topshells: 22/m2), low density (with and without topshells: 19/m2), or with no transplanted fragments (with topshells: 30 spat/m2; without topshells 16/m2). Overall, a total of 2,189 coral spat were recorded with 85% being pocilloporids, 8% poritids, 4% acroporids and 6% unidentifiable. In January 2007, nursery-reared fragments (~5 cm diameter) from five stony coral species (Pocillopora damicornis, Acropora muricata, Porites cylindrica, Montipora digitata, and Echinopora lamellosa) were transplanted onto 42 concrete pallet balls (1.2 m diameter, 0.9 m high) (see paper for full design). Fragments were transplanted onto 14 pallet balls at low density (five fragments/species/ball: 9.5 fragments/m2) and 14 at high density (10 fragments/species/ball: 19 fragments/m2) fragments. The final 14 balls had no fragments attached (as a control). Half the pallet balls also had topshell snails added (10/ball). Pallet balls were placed 4–8 m deep on sandy substrate 3–5 m from a natural coral reef. Coral spat was counted on each pallet ball after approximately five months.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2009 at coral nursery in Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA (Lirman et al. 2010) reported that larger nursery grown fragments of staghorn Acropora cervicornis coral transplanted onto ceramic disks had higher survival than smaller fragments. After 24–39 days, 25 of 27 (93%) larger (3.5 cm) fragments survived compared to 13 of 27 (48%) smaller (2.5 cm) fragments. In June 2009, thirty branch-tip fragments (15 x 2.5 cm and 15 x 3.5 cm length) were collected from 15 nursery-grown colonies of staghorn coral. These were taken to a boat and kept in buckets of water whilst being attached individually to ceramic disks using epoxy. In July 2009, twenty-four branch-tip fragments (12 x 2.5 cm and 12 x 3.5 cm length) were collected from the same nursery. These were attached to ceramic disks whilst underwater. Ceramic disks were attached to a PVC frame using cable ties and placed on the substrate 5.5 m deep within the nursery. Survival was recorded after 39 days (June fragments) and 24 days (July fragments).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study in 2005–2010 at five knolls in Eilat, Israel (Horoszowski-Fridman et al. 2011) found that nursery-grown stony coral Stylophora pistillata colonies transplanted onto natural substrate released a greater number of larvae in most cases compared to wild-grown resident colonies. During three reproductive seasons in each of two trials, greater numbers of larvae were released on average by transplanted nursery-grown colonies (4–23 larvae/colony) than wild-grown resident colonies (0–2 larvae/colony). In a third trial, transplanted nursery-grown colonies released more larvae than resident colonies during the first reproductive season (2 vs 12 larvae/colony), but the difference was not significant in the second season (2 vs 6 larvae/colony). In November 2005, May 2007 and September 2008, Stylophora pistillata colonies reared for 8–24 months in a floating nursery were transplanted onto five bare knolls, along with six other branching or stony coral species (total 1,400 colonies). Colonies were attached using pegs and masonry anchors inserted into drilled holes and secured with epoxy glue. During three reproductive seasons in 2007, 2009 and 2010, collection devices were placed over 20–54 transplanted and 10–40 nearby resident Stylophora pistillata colonies for several nights from sunset to sunrise. Collected larvae were counted using a dissecting microscope.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2008–2010 at a coral reef in Okinotorishima, Japan (Nakamura et al. 2011) found that transplanting nursery-grown stony coral Acropora tenuis on unshaded, upward-facing ceramic tiles covered in cages led to greater coral coverage compared to shaded, downward-facing or uncaged tiles. After 22 months, average coral cover was greater on unshaded, upward-facing tiles with cages (26%) than on shaded upward-facing tiles with cages (8%) or on unshaded, shaded, upward or downward-facing tiles without cages (3–6%). In June 2007, eggs and sperm were cross-fertilised from eight wild Acropora tenuis colonies taken from the transplantation site to a land-based nursery. Larvae were settled on ceramic tiles (each 12 x 12 x 2.5 cm with five rows of 1.5-cm2 holes). In April 2008, pairs of tiles with 10-month-old corals were attached to steel rods and secured to reef knolls using epoxy cement. In each pair, tiles were placed one above the other with the upper tile shading the lower tile. Tile pairs were arranged in three configurations: tiles fixed 1-cm apart with corals facing upwards and covered with a vinyl-coated wire cage (5 cm mesh; 43 pairs) or not covered with a cage (33 pairs), or tiles fixed 3-cm apart with corals facing each other (one upward, one downward) without a cage (32 pairs). Live coral coverage on each tile was measured using a 10 cm2 quadrat at eight, 10 and 22 months after transplantation. Cultivation and transplantation cost ¥50,563,000 (2011 value), including materials, equipment, personnel, electricity, water, fuel and transport (see paper for detailed breakdown).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, randomized study in 2008–2010 at an in-situ nursery and natural reef in Malinep, Philippines (Guest et al. 2014) found that growing fragments of stony coral Acropora millepora on cement ‘plug-ins’ for longer in a nursery before transplanting led to a higher survival rate compared to fragments transplanted after less time in the nursery. After 31 months, survival rate was higher for fragments transplanted after 19 months in the nursery (47%) compared to fragments transplanted after 14 (12%) or seven months in the nursery (8%). In April 2008, PVC-pipe racks with 200 coral ‘plug-ins’ (comprising a cylindrical 20 × 15 mm cement head with a plastic screw plug attached) each supporting at least one juvenile stony coral, were taken from an ex-situ rearing tank to an artificial nursery on a nearby reef. After seven months, sixty plugs were randomly selected and transplanted to a natural reef and attached using holes drilled into the substrate. After 14 months, a further 60 plug-ins were transplanted, with the final 30 plug-ins transplanted after 19 months. Survival was monitored approximately monthly from October 2008–October 2010, and size (average diameter) every six months. Cost (US$)/surviving 2.5-year-old coral was estimated by dividing the total project cost by the number of plug-ins supporting one juvenile coral transplanted at each stage. Cost for corals transplanted at seven months (US$284), 14 months (US$217), 19 months (US$61). Full details in the original paper.
Study and other actions testedA study in 2010–2012 on an intertidal seawall off Changi, Singapore (Ng et al. 2015) found that some nursery-grown stony and soft coral fragments outplanted onto a seawall survived, depending on the species, and most survivors had grown. Thirteen months after outplanting stony corals, survival was higher for Goniastrea minuta (90%) than Diploastrea heliopora (10%). Diploastrea heliopora fragments had negative growth rates (-1.2 cm2/month), while the other five surviving species had positive growth rates (1.2–17.7 cm2/month). Twenty-four months after outplanting stony corals, survival was higher for Porites lobata (47%) than Pocillopora damicornis and Hydnophora rigida (both 0%). Soft coral survival was higher for Lobophytum sp. (88%) than Cladiella sp. (37%) and Sinularia sp. (13%). Coral fragments were collected from an ex-situ nursery and outplanted onto a granite boulder seawall. Fragments (≥3 cm diameter) of three stony coral species (18–38 fragments/species) and three soft coral species (30–40/species) were outplanted in May 2010 (see paper for full species list). Fragments ≥3 cm diameter of two additional stony coral species (30 fragments/species) were outplanted in April 2011. Soft corals were grown on concrete plates (5 cm diameter, 0.5 cm thick) in the nursery, which were then attached to the seawall, whereas stony corals were outplanted directly onto the seawall (both using epoxy putty). Coral survival was monitored monthly during low tide for 24 months for the first transplants and for 13 months for the second batch. Growth was measured using photographs taken during the final survey visit in May 2012.
Study and other actions testedA study in 2011–2015 at a breakwater in Curaçao, Caribbean (12) reported that some nursery-grown elkhorn Acropora palmata coral colonies settled on clay tiles then outplanted onto artificial substrate, survived, grew and spawned. After four years, seven out of nine outplanted colonies survived and grew to 30–40 cm diameter and 20–30 cm height. Four years after outplanting, two colonies were observed releasing egg/sperm bundles. In 2011, egg/sperm bundles were collected from eight elkhorn coral colonies in the wild and cross-fertilized to generate larvae. Viable larvae were settled onto clay tiles and reared at a land-based nursery for one year. After one year, nine colonies were outplanted to a breakwater 2–5 m deep off Curaçao. Monitoring was carried out using photographs.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2019–2020 at six sites in the Florida Keys Reef Tract, USA (Smith et al. 2021) found that three species of nursery-grown corals Montastraea cavernosa, Orbicella faveolata, and Psuedodiploria clivosa transplanted on cement or ceramic discs had high survival after 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, 347 of 360 (96%) transplanted colonies still had live tissue, nine completely died (3%) and four were missing (1%). A lower percentage of fragments from in-situ nurseries on cement discs were predated (6–80%) than those from ex-situ nurseries on ceramic discs (23–99%). The percentage of live tissue/colony initially decreased after transplanting for in-situ corals (99% on transplant day and 95% after 1 week) and ex-situ corals (100% on transplant day and 88% after 1 week), but began to increase from six weeks after transplanting for in-situ nursery corals (reaching 96% after 12 weeks) and one week after transplanting for ex-situ nursery corals (reaching 92% after 12 weeks). At each of three locations, one offshore continuous reef site (5–6 m depth, 6–9 km from shore) and one inshore patch reef site (3–5 m depth, 3–5 km from shore) were selected. At each of the six sites, 60 coral colonies (20 colonies/species) were transplanted, half sourced from an in-situ nursery and half from an ex-situ nursery. Colonies had all been fragmented at their nurseries. Colonies were attached using epoxy to a cement disc (in-situ colonies) or ceramic disc (ex-situ colonies) and attached to the natural substrate via a drilled hole and epoxy. Sites were monitored one, two, six, and 12 weeks after transplanting.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 2018–2019 at two reef sites and an in-situ nursery site on the Florida Reef Tract, USA (Henry et al. 2021) reported that transplanting nursery-grown staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis onto artificial substrates resulted in survival and growth over at least 480 days. Overall, 107 transplanted colonies (89%) survived for at least 480 days, and survival was similar at all sites (85–95% of 40 survived). Colonies grew at all sites, and average size after 480 days ranged from 156–229 cm3 at reef sites to 2,330 cm3 at the nursery site. Egg/sperm bundles were gathered from an in-situ nursery, settled on tiles, and moved to an ex-situ aquaculture facility where they were allowed to grow for eight months. Three transplant sites were selected: two reefs, and one in-situ nursery. In 2018, recruits were grown on 3 × 3 cm ceramic tiles, and 40 fragments/site were transplanted. Tiles were mounted to an argonite and concrete pyramid with epoxy, which was then affixed to the reef. Colonies were monitored approximately two weeks, one month, three, six, and sixteen months after transplanting.
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This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:
Coral ConservationRelated Actions
| Actions | Effectiveness | Studies | Category | |
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Change transplant attachment method Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 3 |
Synopsis Link |
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Remove problematic species Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 7 |
Synopsis Link |
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Transplant nursery-grown coral fragments onto artificial substrate Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 15 |
Synopsis Link |
Coral Conservation - Published 2024
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