Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all types of fishing and collection
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Overall effectiveness category Awaiting assessment
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Number of studies: 24
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Supporting evidence from individual studies
A replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 1974 and 1996 in 15 marine sites in Kenya and Tanzania (McClanahan et al. 1999) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection did not have a higher cover of corals compared to unprotected sites and the dominance of corals varied between sites and was not related to protection level. In five marine protected sites, hard coral cover (33%) was similar compared to 10 unprotected sites (average 40%), all surveyed in 1996, while the cover of sand was higher in protected sites (average 12%) than in unprotected sites (3%). The dominance of corals varied widely between sites, while fish abundance (kg/ha) was 350% higher and sea urchin abundance was 600% lower in protected sites compared to unprotected sites (see paper for details). Coral abundance and cover varied widely between surveys at the four unprotected sites surveyed both 1974 and 1996 (see paper for details). Five protected sites, regularly patrolled to exclude fishing (two in the 10km2 Kisite Marine National Park, on the Kenyan–Tanzanian border and three in the 500m long Chumbe Island Coral Park, Zanzibar) and 10 unprotected sites used for fishing were selected. Attached benthic communities including corals were studied. Four of the unprotected sites surveyed in 1974 were resurveyed in 1996.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 1995–1998 in 18 marine sites in coastal Kenya (Carreiro-Silva et al. 2001) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had higher coral cover and lower coral bioerosion from sea urchins compared to unprotected reefs. Live coral cover was higher in older protected (42%) and newly protected areas (44%) compared to unprotected reefs (18%). Coral bioerosion rates from sea urchins were 20 times lower in older protected areas (50 CaCO3/m2/year) compared to unprotected reefs (1180 g CaCO3/m2/year), and intermediate in newly protected reefs (711 g CaCO3 /m2/year). Total sea urchin density and biomass were 10 times lower in older protected areas (density: 0.6 urchins/10 m2; biomass: 134g/10 m2) compared to unprotected sites (62 urchins/10 m2; biomass: 3182 g/10 m2), while values were intermediate in newly protected areas (12 urchins/10 m2; biomass: 2032 g/10 m2). Unless specified, differences were not statistically assessed. Coral reefs within each category (five sites in older protected areas, three in newly protected areas and 10 in unprotected sites) were each separated by >20 km and distributed along ∼390 km of the coastline. Sites included Malindi and Watamu National Parks, which have been protected from fishing and shell collection since 1968, and Kisite Marine National Park, similarly protected since 1972. Mombasa Marine National Park was established in 1989 but received effective protection from fishing only in 1991.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 1997–1999 in 16 marine sites in coastal Kenya (McClanahan et al. 2001) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had higher coral diversity compared to unprotected, heavily fished areas before a major beaching event, but there were widespread live coral declines in both protected and unprotected reefs after the strong 1998 El Niño event. Coral diversity was higher in protected areas compared to unprotected areas before the 1998 bleaching (reported as diversity index values) and was similar between protected and unprotected areas four months post-bleaching but the decline was higher in the protected sites (77% decline from 40% to 11% cover of benthic substrate) than in unprotected sites (44% decline from 21% to 11%). Soft coral decline was lower in protected sites (65% decline from 4% to 1%) than in unprotected sites (86% decline from 3% to 0.4%). Nine coral reef sites in four Marine Protected Areas (Malindi, Watamu National Parks, Mombasa and Kisite Marine National Parks) and seven sites in four non-protected reef sites, were selected. Sites were separated by 20–100m within each reef and 3–50 km between reefs and were distributed along ∼150 km of the coastline. Before and post-bleaching recovery was monitored in the 16 sites in 1997-1999 using 10m long transects.
Study and other actions testedA randomized, replicated, site comparison study in 2001–2002 in 32 marine sites across two groups of islands in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Graham et al. 2003) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had similar cover and structural complexity of live corals compared to sites where some fishing was allowed. Live coral cover and structural complexity were similar between protected and unprotected sites (data reported as statistical model results). Densities of individual prey fish species varied between areas but the fish-eating coral trout fish (Plectropomus leopardus and Plectropomus maculatus) had three times higher biomass in the protected sites compared to the unprotected, fished sites (see paper for details). Five 50 m long and 6 m wide replicate belt transects were surveyed per site at 16 sites in Whitsunday Islands (8 fished and 8 protected as Marine Protected Areas for 14 years) and 16 sites at Palm Islands (8 in Marine Protected areas and 8 in areas with recreational and commercial line and trawling fishing but away from the reef). The two island groups are 315 km apart. Transects (minimum 5 m apart) were laid haphazardly in April 2002 along the reef slope at 7–11 m depth and percentage live coral cover was estimated every 2 m along the transects.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 1995–2002 in 16 sites across six marine areas in coastal Kenya (5) found double coral cover in protected sites compared to unprotected sites but after the mass coral bleaching event in 1998, protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had similar coral recruitment levels compared to marine areas where fishing was allowed, and coral mortality and post-bleaching recruitment varied widely between sites. Before bleaching, coral cover was double in sites with no fishing (48–52% cover) compared to sites where fishing was allowed (19–27%). However, four years after bleaching, coral cover varied between sites but was similar between non-fished sites (14–25%) and fished sites (6–27%). Coral recruitment was similar in terms of recruit abundance for each of the 23 coral genera included between protected sites with no fishing and sites where fishing was allowed (see paper for details). All protected sites had higher abundance and biomass of fish compared to heavily-fished reefs (see paper for details). Coral reef sites of similar aspects were selected, three sites in Marine Protected Areas with no fishing (Malindi, Watamu and Mombasa National Parks MNPs) and three sites in four partly protected sites where fishing was allowed. Coral recruits were sampled annually in 1999-2001 within 16 sites (seven in the three unfished MPAs and nine in fished sites). In each site 5 × 0.25 m quadrats were randomly placed at least 5 m apart and >70% on hard substratum. Corals 0.5–5.0 cm in diameter were classified as recruits.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 1999–2004 in nine marine sites around the coast of Little Cayman Island in the Caribbean Sea (Coelho & Manfrino 2007), found that during a period of hurricane events, protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection showed similar decreases in live coral cover compared to unprotected sites, while coral bleaching and coral disease similarly affected both protected and unprotected sites. Average live coral cover decreased at similar levels both inside the four marine no-take reserves (from 1999: 29% to 2004: 19%) and the five non-protected marine sites (from 1999: 24% to 2004: 14%). Coral disease prevalence was similar inside protected and unprotected sites each year (see paper for details). Bleaching in protected areas was lower in comparison to non-protected areas in 1999, but the reverse was observed in 2002 (see paper for details). Nine sites were selected, four marine no-take reserves (protected since the mid-1980s) and five non-protected marine sites. In summer months in 1999–2004 randomly placed 10m transects (8-15) were surveyed per site (9-13 m deep) to measure hard coral cover, diversity, size and disease presence. In 2002-2004 Little Cayman was impacted by multiple hurricanes and tropical storms.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2003–2004 in five marine reef areas at Florida Keys, USA (Kramer & Heck 2007) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection (including physical contact with organisms) had lower coral cover and diversity, but similar juvenile abundance compared to sites where fishing was permitted. Across the two survey years coral cover was lower in protected sites (2003: 9, 17, 26%; 2004: 13, 22, 25%) compared to the non-protected sites (2003: 42, 49%; 2004: 39, 55%). Coral species richness was also lower in protected sites, but juvenile abundance and levels of bleaching did not differ in protected and unprotected sites (data as statistical results only). Predatory fish biomass was higher in protected sites compared to non-protected sites while the opposite was true for juvenile parrotfish (see paper for details). In 1997 a total of 24 non-consumptive zones (Special Protection Areas) were created in Florida Keys where all fishing types and all physical contact with organisms were prohibited. Three protected and two non-protected reef sites were selected by matching depth range, reef size, complexity and distance from shore. In June 2003-2004, four 20 m transect lines were randomly placed and surveyed on each reef, and 5 quadrat locations (1 m2) were randomly selected on either side to quantify benthic cover, juvenile coral abundance and coral health.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 1992–2004 in 12 sites across seven marine areas in coastal Kenya (McClanahan 2008) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had higher coral cover and richness compared to areas where fishing was allowed, but after the mass coral mortality event in 1998, coral recovery rates were low and similar between protected and unprotected sites. In sites with no fishing, coral cover (29 % cover) and diversity were greater (15 coral genera) compared to sites where fishing was allowed (16 % cover; 10 genera). However, coral growth was similar between protected sites with no fishing (2%/year) and unprotected sites with fishing (2%/year). Twelve coral reef sites were selected, five in three Marine Protected Areas with no fishing and seven in three unprotected sites with heavy fishing. All forms of fishing were excluded within Malindi and Watamu National Parks since 1968 and in Mombasa Marine Protected Area since 1991. In each site there was a permanently marked 30 × 30 m area where 9–12 randomly-placed 10-m benthic line-intercept transects were surveyed annually in 1992-2004. The cover of major benthic substrate groups was measured on each transect and hard corals were identified to species group.
Study and other actions testedA review of 31 studies of global protected areas (Lester et al. 2009) found that in protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, hard and soft coral density and size was similar to in unprotected areas. Density and size were not significantly different in protected compared to unprotected areas for hard corals (density: 120% higher in protected than unprotected, based on 22 studies; size: 102% higher in protected than unprotected, 1 study), soft corals (density: 14% lower in protected than unprotected, 3 studies; size: 52% higher in protected than unprotected, 1 study), or hard and soft corals combined (density: 2% lower in protected than unprotected, 4 studies, size: no data reported). In addition, when data on all species groups were included (fish, invertebrates, algae), there was no difference in biomass, density, size or richness inside and outside reserves before protection was implemented (see paper for details). The peer reviewed literature was searched for studies on fully protected, no-take marine reserves, with only those with comparisons to unprotected areas, comparisons to areas before protection, or both being included in analysis. A total of 221 studies from 1977–2006 from 124 marine reserves were retained for analysis, although only 31 of those studies included results for corals. For comparisons of inside and outside reserves before protection, 23 studies were used.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired, site comparison study in 2006–2008 in 30 coral reef sites in central Philippines (Stockwell et al. 2009) found that in protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, coral cover did not increase with duration of protection. There was no relationship between hard coral cover and duration of protection in protected areas (16–68% cover, 0.5–11 years of protection) or in adjacent unprotected areas (6–54% cover, 0.5–11 years since protection started in adjacent areas). Soft corals similarly showed no relationship (no data reported). Fifteen protected areas, managed by local communities, were selected with duration of protection ranging from six months to 11 years. Fifteen unprotected (fished) sites were also selected, 11 adjacent to the protected areas (<500 m away), and four <2 km away. In 2006–2008, surveys were conducted along 50 × 10 m transects (six transects/site), and benthic cover was recorded every 0.5 m (100 points/transect).
Study and other actions testedA site comparison study in 1998–2009 at 87 patch reef sites off the coast of Belize (Huntington et al. 2011) found that in a protected area that prohibited all fishing and collection, change in coral cover over 10 years was similar compared to the unprotected area, but the protected area lost more broadcast-spawning coral species and tended to have smaller colonies than the unprotected area. Coral cover remained similar in both the protected and unprotected areas (1998–1999: 8%, 2008–2009: 7%). Authors reported that two previous studies estimated coral cover at this site of 20% in 1996–1997 and 82% in 1970–1971. Cover of broadcast-spawning corals declined more in the protected area (-5%) than the unprotected area (-2%), cover of corals that reproduce by brooding stayed similar in both (0% change). Estimated juvenile coral density was similar in the protected (0.5 individuals/m2) and unprotected area (0.6 individuals/m2). Two broadcasting species tended to be smaller and one brooding species larger in the protected area compared to unprotected area (see paper for details). A no-take protected area was established in 1998. In 2008–2009, a total of 87 patch reef sites were selected, 51 of which had previously been sampled in 1998–1999 (1 year after protection). In 1998–1999, four 10 m transects were surveyed/site, and in 2008–2009, surveys were carried out using photographs taken at 2 m intervals. Colony size was assessed with two 10 m transects/site in 2008–2009 only.
Study and other actions testedA site comparison study in 2010–2011 at five coral reef sites in Moreton Bay, eastern Australia (Olds et al. 2012) found that in a protected area that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, density of coral recruits was higher than in unprotected areas for sites close to mangroves, but at sites more distant from mangroves, protected and unprotected areas had similar densities. Close to mangroves, density of coral recruits on settlement tiles was higher at sites in protected areas (6 colonies/tile) than at sites in unprotected areas (1 colony/tile), but further away from mangroves densities were similar at sites in protected (3 colonies/tile) and unprotected areas (1 colony/tile). Benthic communities on settlement tiles had higher coral cover in protected sites close to mangroves (11% cover) compared to protected sites more distant from mangroves and unprotected sites close to, and distant from, mangroves (1%). Two sites in a protected area where fishing and collection was prohibited were selected: one close to mangroves (<250 m away) and one distant from mangroves (>500 m away). In addition, at each of four unprotected locations, a site close to mangroves and a site distant from mangroves was selected. Twelve settlement tiles were deployed at each site, and half of the tiles were covered with a cage (results from caging experiment not reported here). In September–December 2010, benthic communities were recorded on the tiles using photographs, and tiles were removed in January 2011 to assess stony coral recruits.
Study and other actions testedA review of 37 studies of coral reefs in the Philippines (Magdaong et al. 2014) found that in protected areas that prohibited all fishing and collection, annual change in coral cover was similar compared to partially protected areas, and change was higher in all protected areas compared to unprotected areas. Annual change in cover was not significantly different in fully protected areas (3% increase/year) and partially protected areas (6% increase/year). Across all protected areas, coral cover was similar in protected (19–48%) and unprotected areas (18–48%), but on average, annual change in cover increased in protected areas (3% increase/year) and stayed the same in unprotected areas (0% change/year). In addition, protected areas that were older and larger had annual increases in coral cover (≥6 years: 2–3% increase/year; >10 ha: 2–4% increase/year), while there was no significant annual change in younger and smaller (≤5 years: 6%; ≤10 ha: 3%) protected areas. Peer reviewed publications and grey literature was searched online and through personal communications, and studies identified that recorded hard coral cover, had surveys from two or more years, and reported the number and length of transects. Protected areas were classified as: fully protected (no extractive activities) or partially protected (activities and fishing gear regulated). Data from 1,096 surveys from 317 sites (155 protected, 162 unprotected) from 36 studies and one monitoring program were retained. Most sites (83% of 317) were surveyed with 50 m transects at depths of 2–20 m.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 1987–2010 at eight coral reef sites along the coast of Kenya (McClanahan 2014) found that in protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, hard and soft coral cover was not higher compared to unprotected areas and did not increase with time since protection. For hard and soft corals, cover was not higher in protected areas (hard: 9–50%, soft: 0–7%) compared to fished areas (hard: 9–22%, soft: 1–9%). For hard corals there was no trend with time since protection. For soft corals, cover was 0–7% after 35–40 years of closure and 1–9% when open to fishing, with authors suggesting some evidence for a decline with time since closure. Five areas were selected that excluded all fishing and collection: four were protected areas and one was a community enforced closure. Three areas open to fishing were also selected. The five sites closed to fishing had closure dates of 1968, 1972, 1973, 1991 and 2005. Areas were surveyed 18 times at 1–3-year intervals in 1987–2010, with 1–4 sampling sites selected/area, and 9–12 transects (10 m long) surveyed at each site. Coral cover was compared across different sites in terms of the numbers of years since closure (with zero years = open to fishing).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired, site comparison study in 1998–2011 at six coral reef sites in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, USA (Toth et al. 2014) found that in protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, coral cover declined, and changes were no different compared to unprotected areas. Changes in hard coral cover declined similarly in protected (1998: 6–7%, 2011: 3%) and unprotected areas (1998: 3–5%, 2011: 2–3%). Cover of species of Orbicella annularis, Siderastrea spp., Millepora spp., Porites astreoides, Montastraea cavernosa and gorgonians were similar in protected and unprotected areas (data reported as statistical model results). Change in relative cover of Agaricia spp. over time was greater in protected (3–10%) than unprotected areas ((1–3%). In 1998–2011, changes in coral cover were assessed in three no-take sites (established in 1997) and three fished sites. Fished sites were adjacent to, and comparable in size to, no-take sites. At each site, a rectangular plot (25 × 80 m) was established at two depths (7–9 m and 15–18 m, total of 12 plots), and 10–12 transects (25 m long) were surveyed in each plot, once each summer from 1998–2011 (excluding 2006 and 2009). Surveys were conducted by a diver with a video camera.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2011 in eight coral reef sites in the Florida Keys, USA (van Woesik et al. 2014) found that protected areas where all fishing and collection was prohibited had higher coral recruitment than fished areas at two of three water depths. Density of coral recruits was higher in protected areas (0.4–0.6 recruits/tile) than in fished areas at 2–5 m (0.05 recruits/tile) and 7–10 m (0.1 recruits/tile), but similar at 14–17 m (0.6 recruits/tile). In 2011, eight sites were selected, four on unfished reefs (no-take zones established in 1997) and four on fished reefs. At each site, 30 terracotta tiles (10 × 10 cm) were deployed, with 10 placed at each of three depths: 2–5 m, 7–10 m, and 14–17 m (total of 240 tiles). Tiles were deployed in May 2011, and retrieved in September 2011 (133–141 days underwater) and coral recruits were counted.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2013 at six coral reef sites off Koh Tao, Thailand (Hein et al. 2015) found that protected areas that prohibit all types of fishing and collection had similar hard coral cover, disease prevalence and coral health compared to unprotected areas one year after protection was established. Hard coral cover was similar in protected (47–75%) and unprotected areas (43–89%), and cover by different coral families was also similar in protected vs unprotected areas (Acroporidae: 7 vs 18%, Poritidae: 19 vs 18%, Agariciidae: 15 vs 22%, others: 16 vs 26%). Overall disease prevalence was also similar in protected and unprotected areas (0.9 vs 0.5%), as was prevalence of nine other indicators of coral health (26 vs 14 % of corals showing any indicator). A protected area prohibiting all fishing and collection was established in 2012. Surveys were conducted in early August to late September 2013 at six sites, three within the protected area, and three outside. Sites were also classified based on historic use for human activities (including diving and snorkelling, boat traffic, waste-water run-off and sedimentation) as high or low-use (protected sites: two high, one low-use; unprotected sites: one high, two low-use). Each site was surveyed via three belt transects (15 × 2 m) to estimate coral cover, disease and health.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2012 at 41 coral reef sites in the Whitsunday Islands, Australia (Lamb et al. 2015) found that protected areas that prohibited all fishing and collection had similar coral cover as sites open to some fishing and collection, but lower disease prevalence and fewer signs of disturbance and damage. Coral cover was similar in sites that prohibited all fishing (25%) compared to those that allowed some fishing or collection activity (23–25%). Prevalence of coral disease was four times lower at sites that prohibited all fishing (1% of 272 colonies with disease) compared to those with some fishing (4% of 848 colonies with disease). Sites that prohibited all fishing and collection also had better coral health than fished areas in terms of coral damage (protected: 1%, fished: 4%) and bleaching (protected: 0.6%, fished 1%). In October and November 2012, surveys were conducted at 21 sites where all fishing and collection was prohibited (63 transects) and 20 sites where some fishing and collection was allowed (60 transects). Eleven fished sites allowed hook and line fishing, spear fishing, and collecting, and nine fished sites limited the amount of hook and line fishing and prohibited spear fishing and collecting. Surveys were conducted along 15 × 2 m belt transects.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, paired, site comparison study 1983–2013 at eight coral reef sites in central Philippines (Russ et al. 2015) found that in protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, hard coral cover did not consistently increase with time since protection, and three of four protected areas had higher coral cover than unprotected areas. Coral cover varied over time in both protected (48–2% over 20 years, 30–37% over 20 years, 10–23% over 10 years, 27–37% over 8 years) and unprotected areas (2–59% over 20 years, 19–20% over 20 years, 11–18% over 10 years, 29–10% over 8 years). When averaged across the whole sampling period, three of four protected areas had higher cover than unprotected areas (50 vs 33%, 32 vs 17%, 37 vs 20%) with the fourth having similar cover (15 vs 14%). In addition, there were differences in benthic habitat composition (including coral cover) between protected and unprotected areas (data reported as statistical model results). Four locally manged no-take marine reserves were selected and paired with similar unprotected areas that were fished. All sites were heavily fished before protection was established and compliance after protection was high. Six transects (50 × 20 m) were surveyed at each site in November or December, and the number of years sampled at each site varied from 4–25. At three sites, surveys began in the year before protection was established.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2009–2013 in 16 coral reef sites along the Belize Barrier Reef, Belize (Cox et al. 2017) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had similar coral cover as areas limiting some fishing activities and unprotected areas. Coral cover was similar in fully protected areas (20%), areas with some fishing restrictions (18%) and unprotected areas (21%). In addition, cover was similar across different enforcement levels (good: 21%, moderate: 15%, inadequate: 19%, absent: 20%) and did not change due to time since protection started (see paper for details). Sixteen sites were selected (15−18 m depth): four that were fully protected (only non-extractive activities allowed), four with some restrictions (limited fishing licenses and banned use of traps, nets and longlines), and four with no protection (although fishing of herbivorous fish and Nassau groupers Epinephelus striatus was restricted at all sites). Each site was monitored in May and June in 2009, 2010, 2012 and 2013 along six 10 m transects, spaced around 10 m apart. Coral cover was recorded, and corals were identified to species level.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2014 at nine coral reef sites in Sanya Bay, Hainan, China (Huang et al. 2017) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection did not have higher coral cover than areas that were not protected. Coral cover in protected areas (10%, both privately managed and non-privately managed areas) was similar to cover in unprotected, privately managed areas (8%), but was lower than cover in an unprotected, not privately managed area (36%). Coral growth was similar in protected and unprotected areas (no data reported). In 2014, nine sites were selected that varied in protection status (protected vs unprotected) and management (privately managed or not). Protected areas were established in 1990, and privately managed areas were managed by three different companies for tourism (including diving, snorkelling and other water sports). Fishing restrictions were well enforced in privately managed sites, but enforcement was lacking in protected areas without private management (see paper for details). At each site, three 50 m transects were surveyed in 2014 at each of two depths (2–3 m and 6–8 m), with photographs taken 25 times along each transect using evenly spaced quadrats (50 × 50 cm).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 2000–2011 at eight coral reef sites on the Danajon bank reef system off Bohol, Philippines (Bayley et al. 2020) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had similar coral cover compared to unprotected areas. Coral cover was similar inside and outside protected areas 7–16 years after protection was established (inside: 8–58%, outside: 10–47%), and from two years before to two years after protection was established (inside: 12–44%, outside: 8–52%). Change in coral cover over time did not differ between protected and unprotected areas at seven of eight sites, but for one site cover increased inside the protected area (from 39% to 58% cover over 11 years) and decreased outside (from 48% to 25% cover). In addition, overall composition of community traits was similar for protected and unprotected areas, but at each site there were small differences between the protected and unprotected areas (data reported as statistical model result). Surveys were carried out inside and outside eight community-led, “well enforced” Marine Protected Areas (10–50 ha). Unprotected areas were subject to fishing pressure from multiple gear types, including blast fishing. From 2000–2011, coral cover was surveyed each year via 2–3 transects inside and outside protected areas in the wet and dry season.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 1991–2018 at 12 coral reef sites off the coast of Kenya (McClanahan 2020) found that protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection had more coral species, lower diversity between sites, and similar turnover of species over time compared to fished reefs. Protected areas had a higher number of coral species (15 species/site) than fished reefs (10 species/site) and overall, diversity of species between sites was lower for protected areas than for fished reefs (reported as diversity index). Protected areas contained relatively more Acropora, Echinopora, Montipora and massive Porites corals, whereas fished reefs had more branching Porites, Stylophora, and Pavona corals. In addition, turnover of species groups over time was similar in protected areas and fished reefs (see paper for details). Five sites (30 × 30 m) were established in protected areas with permanent fishing and collection closures, and seven were established in reefs with high fishing intensity. All sites were shallow back-reef lagoons. In December–March 1991–2018, all 12 sites were samples 19 times (nine 10m transects/site). Corals >3 cm were identified to species group or species or classed as branching or massive (for Porites corals).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study over six years [years unknown] at 56 sites along the Great Southern Reef off Australia (turnbull et al. 2021) found that in protected areas that prohibited all types of fishing and collection, diversity and cover of sessile invertebrates (reported as “sponges, soft corals, ascidians, etc.”) was similar compared to unprotected areas. See original paper for data. In addition, partially protected areas that restricted only some activities had lower diversity and cover of sessile invertebrates than unprotected areas. Sites either fully restricted all fishing and collecting (19 sites in 10 areas), restricted some types of fishing (18 sites in 11 areas) or were outside of a protected area (19 sites). Using data from an online database, a total of 1,971 photo quadrats (46% from fully protected, 33% from partially protected, 21% from unprotected) taken along 50 m transects were used to quantify diversity and cover of sessile invertebrates using the Collaborative and Annotation Tools for Analysis of Marine Imagery.
Study and other actions tested
Where has this evidence come from?
List of journals searched by synopsis
All the journals searched for all synopses
This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:
Coral ConservationRelated Actions
| Actions | Effectiveness | Studies | Category | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
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Establish community-based coral reef management Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 2 |
Synopsis Link |
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Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit some fishing and collection (including where restrictions are unspecified) Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 20 |
Synopsis Link |
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Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all types of fishing, collecting and access Action Link |
Awaiting assessment | 1 |
Synopsis Link |
Coral Conservation - Published 2024
Coral synopsis
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