Restore or create forest or woodland
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Overall effectiveness category Evidence not assessed
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Number of studies: 10
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Supporting evidence from individual studies
A paired sites study in 1999 in a pine forest in Arizona, USA (Meyer and Sisk 2001) found that orange sulphur Colias eurytheme butterflies, but not pine white Neophasia menapia butterflies, flew into areas of ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa forest restored by selective logging more often than into unrestored areas. From both east- and west-facing edges, orange sulphur butterflies flew into an area of forest restored through selective logging more often than they flew into unrestored forest (58–90%). Pine whites did not fly into the restored area more often than expected by chance from either edge (47–57%). In early 1999, 87% of trees in the restoration area were cut and removed. In unrestored areas no trees were cut. In July and August 1999, orange sulphur and pine white butterflies were collected from the study sites and nearby land, and held overnight at 5 °C. Thirty minutes before dawn, butterflies were released at four points 1 m from the east- or west-facing edge between the restored and unrestored areas (two points on the east- and two on the west-facing edge of the restored area). Orange sulphurs were monitored on three mornings and pine whites on one morning. Behaviour was monitored until they moved >10 m from the release point.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2003–2004 in 24 sites in a forested landscape in the Korup Region, Cameroon (Bobo et al. 2006) found that secondary forest had a similar abundance and species richness of butterflies to agroforestry sites, but a higher abundance and species richness than cropland. The abundance of butterflies was similar in secondary forest (310 individuals) and agroforestry (412 individuals), but was higher than in near-primary forest (270 individuals) and cropland (175 individuals). Butterfly species richness was similar in secondary forest (44 species), agroforestry (36 species) and near-primary forest (35 species), but higher than in cropland (17 species). Six out of 119 species were more abundant in secondary forest than in both agroforestry and cropland. However, seven species were less abundant in secondary forest than agroforestry or cropland. Two species were less abundant in secondary forest, agroforestry and cropland than in near-primary forest (see paper for details). Six 50-m radius sample sites, >500 m apart, were established in each of four habitat types: secondary forest, cocoa/coffee plantation (agroforestry), near-primary forest and annual cropland. From late December 2003–early March 2004, butterflies were caught in three baited, cylindrical gauze-traps/site, set for nine days/site.
Study and other actions testedA study in 2008–2011 in a woodland in Kent, UK (Bourn et al 2012) reported that in an area managed with coppicing, clear felling and ride widening, populations of heath fritillary Melitaea athalia persisted and, during a period when a larger woodland area was managed, the area occupied by heath fritillary increased but the number of colonies decreased. Results were not tested for statistical significance. In woodland already managed with coppicing, clear felling and ride widening, populations of heath fritillary occupied 18 ha in 2008, when management began to be conducted over a larger area, and three years later in 2011 they occupied 28 ha. However, from 2008–2011 the number of colonies decreased from 37 to 23. Blean Woods was managed with coppicing, clear felling and ride widening since at least prior to 1980 (area of management not provided) and from 2008–2011 the area of management was increased (34–54.5 ha/year). Timed butterfly counts were conducted annually.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after study in 2007–2011 in five woodlands in Lancashire and Cumbria, UK (Ellis et al 2012) reported that at sites with coppicing, tree felling and thinning, and ride management, presence of the high brown fritillary Argynnis adippe persisted or increased, and presence was most likely at sites with high brash and bracken Pteridium aquilinum litter coverage. Between 2007 and 2011, when there was an increase in coppicing, tree felling and thinning, and ride management, the number of sites within a woodland where high brown fritillaries were recorded increased by between 0% and 40%. High brown fritillaries were significantly more likely to occupy sites with more bracken litter (reported as a frequency, average occupied: 19, not occupied: 7) and higher brash cover (average occupied: 21%, not occupied: 11%). Between 2007 and 2011 the pearl-bordered fritillary Boloria euphrosyne colonised two, Duke of Burgundy Hamearis lucina one and pyralid moth Anania funebris two sites (number of woodlands not provided). Twenty-three sites spread across five woodlands in Lancashire and Cumbria were managed between 2007 and 2011 with a combination of coppicing, tree felling and thinning, and ride management. Butterflies were monitored at each site using transects in 2007 (months not given) and timed counts with an average length of eight minutes in May–July 2011. Bracken litter and brash coverage were assessed in May 2011.
Study and other actions testedA before-and-after study in 2007–2012 in a woodland in Worcestershire, UK (Joy and Ellis, 2012) reported that when coppicing, clear-felling, ride management, scrub clearing, scalloping and grazing were being carried out, pearl-bordered fritillary Boloria euphrosyne, wood white Leptidea sinapis and grizzled skipper Pyrgus malvae numbers increased. Results were not tested for statistical significance. Four years after management began, 13 of 21 newly created potential pearl-bordered fritillary breeding sites were occupied. The year before the new management regime began, there were 10 small and six medium pearl-bordered fritillary populations, occupying 27 ha, compared to 16 small, three medium and 11 large populations, occupying 52 ha three years afterwards. Over the same period, a wood white population increased and an additional population was established (numbers not given). Grizzled skipper numbers also increased (numbers not given). From 2008–2012 coppicing, clear-felling, ride management (including scalloping), scrub clearing and grazing were conducted in at least 58 locations in the Wyre Forest. Woodland management was conducted prior to this time, at least from 2002, but details are not given. Butterfly transects were conducted annually at two sites and timed counts at at least 10 sites. Populations of pearl-bordered fritillary were defined as small (≤20 individuals), medium (21–49) or large (≥50) based on butterflies seen during timed counts.
Study and other actions testedA site comparison study in 2008 in two forest sites in Jalisco, Mexico (Hernandez et al. 2014) found that a naturally regenerated forest and a forest restored by planting native trees had a similar diversity and abundance of caterpillars, but the species present at the two sites differed. In a forest which had regenerated naturally, the diversity and abundance of caterpillars (103 individuals) was similar to a forest restored by planting (119 individuals; diversity data presented as model results). However, only 27% of species were found at both sites. Three conserved forest sites had an average abundance of 159 caterpillars/plot (statistical significance not assessed). One 1-ha abandoned pasture was allowed to regenerate naturally from 1992. In 2002, a second 1-ha abandoned pasture was restored by planting 39 native tree species which were shared with the naturally regenerating site. Three conserved forest sites were also surveyed for comparison. From July–November 2008, caterpillars were sampled five times along four parallel 20 × 2-m transects/site, 20 m apart. All leaves in trees up to 2 m high were searched for caterpillars, and in trees >2 m high three branches/tree were searched. Caterpillars were reared in the laboratory to identify the adults.
Study and other actions testedA site comparison study in 2009 in four forest fragments in São Paulo, Brazil (Sant’Anna et al. 2014) found that an old restored forest had fewer species and a lower diversity of fruit-feeding butterflies (Nymphalidae) than younger restored forests, but the proportion of forest species and overall species community at the older site was the most similar to a remnant forest. A 54-year-old restored forest had fewer species (25) and lower diversity of butterflies than 11–22-year-old restored forests (29–35 species) or remnant forest (28 species; diversity data presented as model results). However, the proportion of forest species in the 54-year-old forest (79% of individuals; 72% of species) was higher than in the younger forests (36–46% of individuals; 60–65% of species), and more similar to the remnant forest (92% of individuals; 89% of species). The species community in the old forest was most similar to the remnant forest (data presented as model results). In 1955, 1987 and 1998, three areas of forest (30–50 ha) were restored using seedlings of >70 native tree species and some non-native species. From January–April 2009, butterflies were surveyed in three plots (200 m apart) in each restored forest, and in a 245-ha remnant forest. At each plot, five baited Van Someren-Rydon traps were placed 30 m apart. Traps were left open for 8 days/month. Every 48 hours, butterflies were identified and released, and bait was replaced. Butterfly species were classified according to habitat preference as “forest”, “edge” or “grassland”.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2003–2006 around a tropical rainforest reserve in Sarawak, Malaysia (Itioka et al. 2015) found that butterfly species richness was higher in older forest regeneration plots than in newly regenerating plots, but that regenerating areas had lower species richness than primary forest. Butterfly species richness was higher at sites which had been regenerating naturally for >5 years (5–13 years: 10–18 species; 20–60 years: 12–22 species) than at newly regenerating sites (<3 years: 6–7 species). However, species richness in all regenerating sites was lower than in isolated (20–40 species) or intact (48–66 species) primary rainforest. In August 2003, twenty-one open plots (two × 100 m2 each) on the edge of five types of forest stand (2,772–4,917 m2) were selected. Six plots were next to old regenerating forest, where 20–60 years had passed since the land was last cultivated; three were next to young regenerating forest where 5–13 years had passed since cultivation; three were next to newly regenerating forest where one year had passed since cultivation; six were next to isolated primary forest stands, and three were next to intact primary forest. Butterflies were surveyed twice/plot in August 2003, September 2003, January 2005 and June 2006.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2013 in 15 forest sites in southwest Costa Rica (Alonso-Rodríguez et al. 2017) found that secondary forests had a greater abundance and species richness of geometrid (Geometridae) and arctiine (Arctiinae) moths than oil palm plantations, and a similar species richness but lower abundance than old-growth forest. In young secondary forest, the species richness of both geometrid (90 species) and arctiine (96 species) moths was higher than in oil palm plantations (geometrids: 31; arctiines: 35 species), but not significantly different to old-growth forest (geometrids: 113; arctiines: 81 species). The abundance of geometrid moths was higher in secondary forest (314 individuals) than in oil palm (135 individuals), but lower than in old-growth forest (570 individuals). The abundance of arctiine moths was similar between habitat types (secondary forest: 668; oil palm: 529; old-growth forest: 581 individuals). Species composition was different in the three habitats (see paper for details). Fifteen sites, >200 m apart, were selected: five 3–10-year-old secondary forests; five even-aged oil palm plantations (>1 ha); and five old-growth primary or 80-year-old secondary forests. From February–July 2013, moths were sampled overnight once/month, using an 8 W, UV-emitting funnel trap installed 1–2 m above ground at up to three sites/night in different habitats.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, site comparison study in 2011 in a fragmented forest in Paraná, Brazil (Shuey et al. 2017) found that regenerating and replanted forest plots had a similar species richness of butterflies to both grazed pasture and remnant forest, but the species present differed between habitats. The number of butterfly species in regenerating (69 species) and replanted (47–102 species) forest was not significantly different from in pastures (52–59 species) or remnant forest (57–79 species). However, out of 213 butterfly species recorded, 33 were found only on restored sites (regenerating or replanted), compared to 18 species unique to pastures and 66 species unique to remnant forests. Eight sites, all >40 ha, were studied: one former pasture ungrazed for 14 years and naturally regenerating from the surrounding remnant forest, two former pastures planted with 15–20 species of native trees 12–14 years before the study, two grazed open pastures, and three intact forest remnants. In January, March and April 2011, butterflies were sampled once/month. Four baited butterfly traps were placed 1–2 m above ground, 50 m apart, in the centre of each plot, for three consecutive days/month, and checked daily. In addition, butterflies were counted on two 1-hour transects/month at each site.
Study and other actions tested
Where has this evidence come from?
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This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:
Butterfly and Moth ConservationRelated Actions
| Actions | Effectiveness | Studies | Category | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
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Cease mowing on grassland to allow early succession Action Link |
Evidence not assessed | 16 |
Synopsis Link |
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Restore or create forest or woodland Action Link |
Evidence not assessed | 10 |
Synopsis Link |
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Clear or open patches in forests Action Link |
Evidence not assessed | 14 |
Synopsis Link |
Butterfly and Moth Conservation - Published 2023
Butterfly and Moth Synopsis
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