Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in family/social groups

How is the evidence assessed?
  • Effectiveness
    70%
  • Certainty
    65%
  • Harms
    5%

Study locations

Key messages

COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)

POPULATION RESPONSE (22 STUDIES)

  • Abundance (4 studies): A study in the USA found that a translocated population of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep released in groups increased at a similar rate to that of a population newly established through natural recolonization. A replicated, controlled study in the USA found that after translocating black-tailed prairie dogs in social groups to areas with artificial burrows, colonies increased in size over four years. A replicated study in Canada found that following translocation of elk, most of which had been kept in holding pens in groups, numbers increased at two of four sites. A study in the USA found that following the release of captive-reared bighorn sheep in groups, the overall population declined over 14 years.
  • Reproductive success (11 studies): A study in the USA found that captive-reared bighorn sheep released in groups had similar population recruitment rates compared to wild-reared sheep. A replicated, paired study in the USA found that black-tailed prairie dogs translocated as family groups had higher reproductive success than those translocated in non-family groups. A replicated study in the USA found that translocated gray wolves had similar breeding success when adult family groups were released together from holding pens or when young adults were released directly into the wild. Six of eight studies (one replicated) in Poland, Russia, South Africa, the USA and the USA–Canada border found that when translocated and/or captive-bred animals were released in social or family groups, cheetahs, European bison, lions, African wild dogs, most European beavers and some swift foxes reproduced successfully. One study found that one of two translocated Cape buffalo groups released after being held in a holding pen formed a single herd and reproduced, while the other scattered and escaped the reserve. One study found that no Gunnison's prairie dogs reproduced during the first year.
  • Survival (19 studies): One of three studies (one controlled, before-and-after) in the USA found that when translocated or captive-bred animals were released in family or social groups, captive-reared bighorn sheep had similar survival compared to wild-reared sheep, whereas two found lower survival compared to wild white-tailed deer and San Joaquin kit foxes. Three replicated studies (one controlled, one paired) in the USA found that when translocated as a social or family group, black‐tailed prairie dogs had higher and white-tailed deer and gray wolves had similar survival rates to those translocated as unrelated groups or individuals. Ten studies (one replicated) in Poland, Russia, Italy, South Africa, the USA, USA–Canada border, China and India found that when translocated and/or captive-bred animals were released in social or family groups, a population of Przewalski’s horses and European bison persisted 5-11 years, lions, most swift foxes and European beavers and half or more cheetahs survived for at least one year, and one-horned rhinoceroses and over half of Gunnison's prairie dogs and Eurasian badgers survived at least 1-6 months. Three studies in the USA and South Africa found that when translocated or captive-bred animals were released in family or social groups (some provided with artificial refuges and/or supplementary food), most Mexican wolves did not survive over eight months and all rock hyraxes died within 90 days. A study in South Africa found that translocated and captive-bred African wild dogs released in family groups into fenced reserves had high survival rates.
  • Condition (1 study): A study in China found that following the release of captive-bred Przewalski’s horses in groups, the population had a lower genetic diversity than two captive populations.

BEHAVIOUR (4 STUDIES)

  • Behaviour change (4 studies): Two replicated, controlled (one before-and-after) studies in the USA found that when translocated as a social or family group, white-tailed deer had similar average dispersal distances and Utah prairie dogs had similar release site fidelity and post-release behaviour compared to those translocated as unrelated groups. One found that deer translocated together did not stay together, whether they had previously been part of the same social group or not. A study in Zimbabwe found that a translocated lion family joined with immigrant lions and formed a new pride. A study in South Africa found that translocated lions that were released in groups that had already been socialised and formed into prides, established stable home ranges.

About key messages

Key messages provide a descriptive index to studies we have found that test this intervention.

Studies are not directly comparable or of equal value. When making decisions based on this evidence, you should consider factors such as study size, study design, reported metrics and relevance of the study to your situation, rather than simply counting the number of studies that support a particular interpretation.

Supporting evidence from individual studies

  1. A study in 1960–1985 of forest and grassland across a mountain range in Montana, USA (Irby & Andryk 1987) found that a translocated population of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis released in groups increased at rate similar to that of a population newly established through natural recolonization. Following translocation of 37 adult sheep and 30 lambs, the population reached 54 sheep and 43 lambs seven years later, though was estimated at 31 sheep and 12 lambs the following year. A naturally recolonized population increased from 30 sheep at establishment to 77 sheep and 49 lambs 22 years later (the same year that the population peaked in the translocated population) though declined to 33 sheep and 15 lambs the following year. Sheep populations were studied in a 3,000-km2 study area. The translocated population (released in 1976) was surveyed seven times between 1976 and 1985. The recolonized population (established in 1958–1960 and occupying a separate part of the study area) was surveyed 11 times between 1960 and 1985. Surveys were carried out on the ground or by helicopter, usually on winter ranges. Weather frequently hampered surveys of the translocated population.

    Study and other actions tested
  2. A study in 1984–1987 in two shrubland ranches in Texas, USA (McCall et al. 1988) found that most captive-bred white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus released in groups that had been reared together died within one year of release, whereas all monitored wild deer survived at least one year. Eight out of 13 (62%) captive-bred white-tailed deer died within one year post-release but all 20 wild deer survived. Thirteen captive-bred white-tailed male deer (average age: 1.7 years) were released into two ranches (extending over 25,900 ha and 15,379 ha) in January 1987. Additionally, 20 wild male deer were caught and released. In 1984–1986, ten captive-bred deer were removed from their mothers at 2–4 days old and bottle-raised by humans. Three others were raised by their mothers until four months old. After removal from their mothers, captive-bred deer were kept in 1.2-ha pens. All deer were ear-tagged and fitted a radio-collar. Deer were radio-tracked after release, on average every 25 days, from an airplane. A two month hunting season was in place on both ranches during 1987.

    Study and other actions tested
  3. A replicated study in 1975–1985 in a river basin in north-eastern Poland (Żurowski & Kasperczyk 1988) found that most translocated and captive-bred European beavers Castor fiber released in pairs or family groups survived over one year after release and reproduced in the wild. Ten years after the release of 168 Europeans beavers (74 pairs or families), 108 were found to be established in 64 families. Reproduction was detected in nine of 16 areas where releases occurred and by the end of 1985, forty-four new colonies had established in the reintroduction areas. The average reproduction rate of captive-bred beavers was higher (2.1 kits/litter) than wild-born beavers (1.8 kits/litter; results were not statistically compared). Twenty-two translocated beavers (14%) died during the first year in the wild. In total, 51 beavers died or were lost following translocation. In 1975–1985, a total of 168 European beavers (74 pairs) were released into 16 regions within the Vistula river basin. Release sites had abundant willow Salix spp. and alder Alnus spp. thicket. Beavers were released in small populations of two to 11 pairs (usually 4 pairs), 2–20 km apart. Eleven individuals were captive-born and the remainder were caught in the wild and translocated. Beavers were monitored annually.

    Study and other actions tested
  4. A replicated study in 1995–1996 in two forest sites in Idaho and Wyoming, USA, (Bangs & Fritts 1996) found that translocated gray wolves Canis lupus had similar survival rates and breeding success in the first two years after release when adult family groups were released together from holding pens or when young adults were released directly into the wild. No statistical analyses were conducted. Thirty out of 35 young adult wolves released directly into the wild were still alive seven months after the last releases, and had produced up to 40 pups from 3-8 pairs. Thirty-one adult wolves released from holding pens in family groups had produced 23 pups four months after the last releases. From these 54 animals, nine had died. Six of the seven adult pairs released together from holding pens remained together, and five of these pairs established territories in the vicinity of the pens. Wolves were wild-caught from Canada in January 1995 and 1996. In Idaho, young adults were directly released in January 1995 and 1996. In Wyoming, family groups of 2–6 wolves spent 8–9 weeks in 0.4-ha chain-link holding pens before release in March 1995 and April 1996. Wolves were radio-tracked every 1–3 weeks until August 1996.

    Study and other actions tested
  5. A replicated controlled study in 1993–1995 in a mixed hardwood and conifer forest reserve in New York, USA (Jones et al. 1997) found that white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus translocated as a social group did not differ in survival or average dispersal distance compared to deer translocated as an unrelated group and deer translocated together did not stay together, regardless of whether they had previously been part of the same social group or not. Survival rates in the first year after release were similar for translocated deer from the same social group (6/12 individuals, 50%) as for those from unrelated social groups (3/5 individuals, 60%). Survival rates of translocated deer were lower than resident deer in 1993-1995 (75-88%). Deer released together did not remain together regardless of whether they had originated from the same social group or not. The average dispersal distance of deer translocated as a social group (24 km) was similar to those translocated in a group of unrelated deer (22 km). Between May-June 1994, seventeen female white-tailed deer were caught and translocated 60 km from one hardwood and coniferous forest to another (1,133 ha). Twelve were translocated from the same social group (released in groups of 1-5 animals) and five were unrelated animals (released in a group of 3 animals or individually). Each deer was ear-tagged and radio-collared. Resident deer were radio-tracked 5–15 times/week in the source forest April-August 1993-1995 and translocated deer were radio-tracked in the destination forest 1-15 times/week in May-August 1994 and 1995, every few months in September-December 1994 and 1-8 times/month in January-March 1995.

    Study and other actions tested
  6. A study in 1994-1998 in a savannah reserve in North West province, South Africa (Hofmeyr & van Dyk 1998a) found that after being kept in groups (some family groups, some unrelated groups) in holding pens, approximately half of translocated cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus survived at least 18 months, of which half died within three years. Nine of 19 cheetahs survived 19-24 months, of which six were cubs that matured to independence, but only four cheetahs were known to still be alive at the end of the study period. Six cheetahs survived in the reserve less than one year, of which one died after a few weeks and two were removed to a captive breeding facility. The fate of four released cheetahs was unknown. In total 19 cheetahs were released into a game reserve between October 1994 and January 1998. Cheetahs were initially placed in 1 ha holding pens with electrified fencing for 4 weeks to several months. Cheetahs were mostly rescued wild-caught animals, except for one that was habituated to humans (and had to be removed after 2 weeks). Cheetahs were either held in family groups (mothers with cubs) or as coalitions (of adult males). One animal/group was radio collared for monitoring.

    Study and other actions tested
  7. A study in 1981–1998 in a savannah reserve in North West province, South Africa (Hofmeyr & van Dyk 1998b) found that following the release of rehabilitated and captive-bred cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in groups (family and unrelated) and individually, most adults survived at least one year and animals bred in the wild. Most rehabilitated adult females (3 of 4) and all rehabilitated adult males (4 of 4) survived at least one year. Two rehabilitated adult females produced a second litter within two years of release. Three of 10 cubs released survived to independence, including a female who then raised her own litter of cubs to independence. The total population numbered 17 cheetahs one year after the end of a five year release program, compared to 18 animals released. An earlier release in the same National Park found that captive-bred cheetahs had bred successfully but most animals were subsequently removed to protect ungulate populations. Between 1995 and 1997, eighteen cheetahs (4 adult males, 4 adult females and 10 dependent cubs) were introduced to a National Park (55, 000 ha) from a rehabilitation facility (it is unclear whether the animals were wild caught, captive bred or reared in captivity). Cheetahs were released in family groups (mothers with cubs), in unrelated groups (of males) or individually. In 1981-1982, seven cheetahs were released from a captive-breeding facility and after a period of time (not specified), seven cheetahs were removed leaving three males in a group behind. Individuals were monitored by radio-tracking.

    Study and other actions tested
  8. A study in 1998 in a grassland, shrubland and forest reserve in Arizona, USA (Parsons 1998) found that most captive-bred Mexican wolves Canis lupus baileyi released in family groups (initially into holding pens and provided with supplementary food) did not survive over eight months after release into the wild. Out of 11 captive-bred Mexican wolves released, six (55%) were illegally killed within eight months, three (27%) were returned to captivity and two (18%) survived in the wild for at least one year. Three weeks after their release, three individuals from one family group killed an adult elk Cervus canadensis. Two females gave birth two months after release but only one pup survived. Eleven wolves in three family groups were released in March 1998. Before release, wolves were kept for two months in pre-release holding pens, where they were fed carcasses of native prey. Carcasses were provided as supplementary food for two months post-release when sufficient killing of prey was confirmed. The released wolves were fitted with radio-collars. No monitoring details are provided.

    Study and other actions tested
  9. A study in 1997 in one desert grassland site in New Mexico, USA (Davidson et al. 1999) found that over half of the translocated Gunnison's prairie dogs Cynomys gunnisonii released in family groups survived at least six months, but none reproduced during the first year. Thirty-six out of 60 (60%) translocated prairie dogs survived the first summer after being released into the wild, but no young were born during this period. In spring 1997 sixty prairie dogs (30 male, 30 female) were translocated to a 3.5 ha area in a former prairie dog colony site. Individuals were released with family members or near neighbours, into the existing burrows of a former prairie dog colony. Prairie dogs were monitored during summer and autumn 1997 but monitoring details are not provided.

    Study and other actions tested
  10. A study in 1997–1998 on a savanna estate in Zimbabwe (Hoare & Williamson 2001) found that a translocated lion Panthera leo family kept in a holding pen prior to release joined with immigrant lions and formed a new pride. A lioness was translocated with three cubs (one male, two female). Within 45 days, seven male lions were close by and the female mated with one of these. The male cub moved away and the pride then comprised the female and daughters with two adult male lions. A wild lioness joined the pride 1.7 months after release, but was killed by a snare after six months. After 12–13 months, the original lioness had three new cubs and her daughters each also had litters. Resident lions on the estate were eliminated in 1995. In January 1997, a lioness and three cubs were translocated from communal land to a holding pen and were released on the estate after 90 days. Lions were monitored through to May 1998 by radio-tracking and direct observation.

    Study and other actions tested
  11. A study in 1985–1998 in a shrub-dominated mountain area in California, USA (Ostermann et al. 2001) found that captive-reared bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis released into the wild in groups had similar survival and population recruitment rates compared to wild-reared sheep, but the overall population declined over 14 years. Captive-reared released and wild-reared bighorn sheep had similar average annual survival (captive-reared: 80%; wild-reared: 81%) and recruitment rates (captive-reared: 0.14 lambs/adult female; wild-reared: 0.14 lambs/adult female). However, despite releases, the overall population at the study site declined over 14 years from an estimated 40 sheep in 1985 to 22 sheep in 1998. In 1985–1998, seventy-four captive-reared bighorn sheep were released at three sites in a 70-km2 area. Captive-reared sheep included 49 captive-born and 25 wild-born lambs brought into captivity at 1–5 months of age. Captive-reared sheep were released in 33 groups of 1–6 animals, mostly when one year old. Water was provided at the release site for 3–20 days post-release. Released sheep were ear-tagged and radio-collared and monitored at least once/week during each of 14 years in 1985–1998. Survival and reproduction were compared with those of 43 wild-reared sheep radio-tracked in the study area during the same time period.

    Study and other actions tested
  12. A study in 1994–1998 at seven temperate grassland sites along the USA–Canada border (Moehrenschlager & Macdonald 2003) found that most translocated swift foxes Vulpes velox, which had been held in captivity prior to release and were released in social groups, survived for at least one year, and some reproduced near release sites. Eleven of 18 (61%) translocated swift foxes survived at least one year after release. Of these, 60% of animals translocated as juveniles went on to reproduce, as did 33% of translocated adults. In 1994–1996, foxes were captured in Wyoming, USA, and were fitted with radio-collars while being held in captivity for 22–57 days. In autumn 1994–1996, animals were released in mixed-gender groups of up to three individuals which had been trapped in close proximity. Release sites were located in areas with pre-existing, but small, fox populations and with low numbers of predators and high prey availability. Foxes were monitored by visual surveys and ground-based and aerial radio-tracking.

    Study and other actions tested
  13. A study in 2000–2003 in a mixed karoo grassland reserve in Northern Cape Province, South Africa (Venter 2004) found that one out of two translocated Cape buffalo Syncerus caffer groups released into a fenced reserve (after being held in a holding pen) formed a single herd, stayed in the reserve and reproduced, while the other scattered and escaped the reserve. One group of 10 translocated animals formed a single herd (along with the two remaining animals from the previous introduction) and over 10 months no animals died or escaped. A year after the introduction, five calves were born. One month after release, a second group of four buffalo had split into two solitary animals and a pair formed by one male and one female. One of the solitary animals was not seen again, the second solitary male animal was located two years after release on a neighbouring farm and released into the second group of translocated animals in May 2003. The pair escaped the reserve three times in 13 months. After the third escape, the male was moved to a different reserve and a new male introduced to form a herd with the remaining female. Four subadult buffalos (2 male, 2 female) were placed in a holding pen in July 2000 and released in August into a fenced 12,000-ha reserve. A second group of seven adult and three subadult animals (4 male, 6 female) was placed into a holding pen in August 2002 and released into a 200 ha area in September before being completely released in October 2002. Both groups were monitored weekly with telemetry until October 2003.

    Study and other actions tested
  14. A study in 1996–2002 of forest in a national park in Oryol Oblast, Russia (Belousova et al. 2005) found that a population of captive-bred European bison Bison bonasus released in groups persisted five to six years post-release and bred in the wild. The first calf was born in the second year after releases began and after six years, 30 calves had been born. The total population numbered 68 individuals (6-36 individuals/group) after six years. Sixty-five captive-bred bison were released in four groups in 1996–2001. Bison were monitored by visual observations and tracking.

    Study and other actions tested
  15. A replicated, controlled study in 1999–2003 on a grassland site in Montana, USA (Dullum  et al. 2005) found that after translocating black-tailed prairie dogs Cynomys ludovicianus in social groups to areas with artificial burrows, colonies increased in size over four years. Six colonies receiving translocated prairie dogs grew more in area over four years (total growth 72 ha, 924% of pre-translocation area) than did 20 similar-sized colonies, which did not receive translocated prairie dogs (total growth 27 ha, 93% increase). Two active colonies (with existing prairie dog populations at the start of the study) that each received 120 prairie dogs increased more over four years (total increase 37 ha, 971% of pre-translocation area) than did two active colonies each receiving 60 prairie dogs (total growth 31 ha, 768%). An inactive colony that received no prairie dogs remained inactive. In June–July 1999, prairie dogs were released into pre-existing burrows (up to eight prairie dogs/burrow) or drilled holes (8 cm diameter × 60 cm deep, 45° below horizontal, up to two prairie dogs/hole, 30 holes/site). Colony size was measured four years later. Nine experimental colonies, three each occupying areas of 0 ha (inactive), 0.1–2.0 ha and 2.0–6.6 ha, were studied. In each size class, translocations to the three colonies were of 0, 60 and 120 prairie dogs. Growth-rates of 20 non-supplemented colonies were also monitored.

    Study and other actions tested
  16. A study in 2001–2005 in a mixed forest and farmland site in northern Italy (Balestrieri et al. 2006) found that just over half of translocated Eurasian badgers Meles meles released in groups into holding pens with supplementary food survived at least one month after release. Seven out of 12 badgers survived for 1–9 months, after which monitoring equipment stopped operating. One badger died almost immediately after release due to unknown causes. Two badgers escaped (one after the first month, the other after unknown period). The fate of three other badgers was unknown. One pair of translocated animals reproduced in the wild four years after release. From March 2001 to May 2004, twelve badgers were captured at four sites in northern Italy. Badgers were fitted with radio-collars and transported 20-40 km to the release site where they were kept in a 350 m2 enclosure in a wooded area in their release groups (2001: 2 individuals, 2002: 4 individuals, 2003: 2 individuals; 2004: 4 individuals) and provided supplementary food for 3–10 weeks before release. Seven of the 12 badgers were located once/week, for up to nine months after release.

    Study and other actions tested
  17. A replicated, paired study in 2001–2003 in 10 grassland sites in New Mexico, USA (Shier 2006) found that black‐tailed prairie dogs Cynomys ludovicianus translocated as family groups had higher survival and reproductive success than black‐tailed prairie dogs translocated in non-family groups. Prairie dogs translocated as a family had higher post-release survival to the following spring (39–62%) and higher reproductive success (2.2–3.9 pups/female) than did those translocated as non-family groups (survival: 7–19%; reproductive success: 0.2–3.4 pups/female). Ten sites in Vermejo Park Ranch, Colfax County, from which prairie-dogs were absent but which were within the historical range, were selected. Four hundred and eighty-four wild-caught black-tailed prairie dogs were translocated in family groups into five sites (87–100/site) and 489 were translocated as non-family groups into five sites (88–103/site). Translocations took place in June–August of 2001 and2002. Survival and reproductive success were measured by trapping marked animals during the spring in the year after release (in May–July 2002 and May-June 2003).

    Study and other actions tested
  18. A study in 1992–2004 in a grassland reserve in KwaZuluNatal Province, South Africa (Hunter et al. 2007) found that translocated lions Panthera leo that were released in groups that had already been socialised and formed into prides, established stable home ranges, reproduced successfully and survived at least a year. Of 15 lions released, all except three, which were removed for killing a tourist, survived ≥398 days post-release. Average post-release survival was ≥1,212 days. At least 95 cubs from 25 litters were documented from the population over the 13-year study. Excluding cubs translocated to other sites or those still <18 months old at the end of the study, 51 of 65 cubs (78%) reached 18 months of age. Seven lions were released in May 1992, six in February 1993 and two in January 2003. Releases were into a fenced reserve (initially 176 km2, then extended to 210 km2). Before release, lions were held in groups, each in an 80-m2 acclimation pen, for 6–8 weeks. During this time, socialization occurred and stable prides were formed. Eleven of the founder lions were radio-tracked and other animals were monitored by direct observations.

    Study and other actions tested
  19. A replicated study in 1998–2004 within four largely forested areas in Ontario, Canada (Rosatte et al. 2007) found that following translocation elk Cervus canadensis, most of which had been kept in holding pens in groups, remained present at all recipient sites and numbers increased at two of them. By 3–6 years after translocations, elk populations had increased at two sites and decreased at two. From 443 elk translocated, the population at the end of the study was estimated at 375–440 animals. Between 1998 and 2004, forty-one percent of translocated elk died. Causes of death included 10% lost to wolf predation, 5% to emaciation and 5% were shot. Elk were translocated from a site in Alberta, Canada in 1998–2001 in nine releases. Transportation took 24–58 hours. Elk were held in pens at recipient sites for up to 16 weeks before release (some were released immediately) but the effect of holding pens was not tested. Of 443 elk released, 416 were monitored by radio-tracking. The overall population was estimated in March 2004.

    Study and other actions tested
  20. A study in 1995–2005 in 12 dry savanna and temperate grassland sites in South Africa (Gusset et al. 2008) found that translocated and captive-bred African wild dogs Lycaon pictus released in family groups into fenced reserves had high survival rates and bred successfully. Eighty-five percent of released animals and their wild-born offspring survived the first six months after release/birth. Released animals that survived their first year had a high survival rate 12–18 months (91%) and 18–24 months (92%) after release. Additionally, groups that had more time to socialise in holding pens prior to release had higher survival rates (data presented as statistical models). Between 1995 and 2005, a total of 127 wild dogs (79 wild-caught, 16 captive-bred, 16 wild-caught but captive-raised, 16 “mixed” pups) were translocated over 18 release events into 12 sites in five provinces of South Africa. Animals were monitored for 24 months after release, and the 129 pups which they produced after release were monitored up to 12 months of age. Forty characteristics of the individual animals, release sites and methods of release were recorded, and their impact on post-release survival was tested.

    Study and other actions tested
  21. A study in 2007 at rocky outcrops on a reserve in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa (Wimberger et al. 2009a) found that all translocated rock hyraxes Procavia capensis that were released as a group, having been kept in a holding pen, died (or were presumed to have died) within 18 days of release. Eight of nine wild translocated hyraxes died within 18 days of release and the other was presumed to have died. The group split up and were not seen together after release. In October 2007, nine hyraxes (one juvenile, three sub-adults and five adults) were caught in baited mammal traps (90 × 31 × 32 cm) in an area where they were abundant, and moved 150 km to a 656-ha reserve where the species was nearly extinct. Hyraxes were kept together in a holding cage (185 × 185 × 185 cm) for 14 days before release. They were monitored daily for one week, and then every few days by direct observation and radio-tracking.

    Study and other actions tested
  22. A study in 2005–2006 at rocky outcrops on a reserve in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa (Wimberger et al. 2009b) found that translocated rock hyraxes Procavia capensis that were released in a social group after being held in captivity, and were provided with an artificial refuge and supplementary food after release, all died (or were presumed to have died) within 87 days of release. Eighty-seven days after the release of 17 hyraxes, none could be relocated. In July 2005, ten adult hyraxes were caught in baited mammal traps (90 × 31 × 32 cm) in an area where they were abundant, and held in captivity for 16 months, during which time three died. The remaining seven were released in November 2006, along with the eight juveniles and two pups born to them in captivity, to a 656-ha reserve where the species was nearly extinct. For four months prior to release, the group was housed together in an outdoor cage (5.9 × 2.5 × 3.2 m). Hyraxes were released into a hay-filled hutch which was left in place for several months, and were provided with cabbage for one week after release. Hyraxes were monitored by direct observations and by walking regular transects, daily for the first week but decreasing to monthly by the end of the study.

    Study and other actions tested
  23. A replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in 2010–2011 in two grassland sites in Utah, USA (Curtis et al. 2014) found no differences in the release site fidelity or post-release behaviour of translocated Utah prairie dogs Cynomys parvidens released in family groups or in groups composed of non-related individuals. Similar numbers of prairie dogs released in family groups (24 out of 386, 6%) and in non-related groups (26 out of 393, 7%) were still present at the release sites two months after release. Additionally, the post-release behaviour did not differ between groups, but both groups behaved differently post-release than pre-release (data presented as model results). In July 2010 and 2011, three hundred and seventy-nine and 400 prairie dogs were caught on a golf course using baited Tomahawk wire box-traps. Individuals were marked with hair dye and ear tags and released the same day at two sites with artificial burrow systems, with up to 10 animals/burrow. Each site had four release areas at least 200 m apart, each containing five burrows, 4 m apart. Each burrow consisted of a 30 × 45 × 30 cm box, buried 1.8m deep, and with two entrances (10-cm diameter and 4-m long) made from plastic tubing. Burrow entrances were protected from predators by mesh cages. At each site, two release areas were used for family groups and two for non-related groups. Predator removal of coyote Canis latrans and badgers Taxidea taxus was conducted for several weeks before and after prairie dog release. In September 2010 and 2011, prairie dogs were trapped, using 100 traps/site, during two sessions of four days each to determine site retention.

    Study and other actions tested
  24. A study in 2001–2012 in a desert reserve in Xinjiang province, China (Liu et al. 2014) found that following the release of captive-bred Przewalski’s horses Equus ferus przewalskii in groups, the population persisted at least 11 years but had a lower genetic diversity than two captive populations. Over 11 years after being reintroduced, the population of Przewalski’s horses increased from 27 to 99 individuals. However, reintroduced horses had a lower genetic diversity (3.3 alleles/locus) than captive horses (3.4–3.8 alleles/locus), although the result was not tested for statistical significance. In 1985–1994, two captive populations of Przewalski’s horses (founded with 22 and 18 horses imported from zoos) were established at two captive breeding facilities. In 2001, twenty-seven horses (16 females, 11 males) born in captivity within the latter population were released in small groups into a 17,330-km2 reserve. Details on horse surveys are not provided. In 2010–­2012, faecal samples were collected from 116 captive horses (66 and 50 horses from each of the two captive populations) and 52 reintroduced horses. Genetic diversity was estimated for 10 microsatellite loci.

    Study and other actions tested
  25. A study in 2008–2012 in a grassland reserve in Assam, India (Dutta & Mahanta 2015) found that translocated greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis, some of which were cow-calf pairs, all survived at least 90 days after release. All 18 rhinoceroses survived more than >90 days after being released. During the first day after release, rhinoceroses dispersed an average of 2.4 km from the release site. Sixteen out of 18 rhinoceroses moved in the same direction to the bank of a river. Most cow-calf pairs separated after release, but were reunited within 24 hours. Between April 2008 and March 2012, twelve adult rhinoceroses and six calves (2–3 years old) were translocated from Kaziranga National Park and Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary to the 519-km2 Manas National Park. Rhinoceroses were released in groups of 2–4, often containing cow-calf pairs. Animals were radio-collared and located three times/day over 90 days after release. Tracking was carried out by foot, elephant back, motorcycle or vehicle.

    Study and other actions tested
  26. A controlled, before-and-after study in 1989–1992 on a hilly grassland and scrubland site in California, USA (Scrivner et al. 2016) found that the survival of translocated San Joaquin kit foxes Vulpes macrotis mutica kept in pairs in holding pens prior to release was lower than that of resident animals. The survival of 40 translocated foxes in the first year after release (six alive, 32 dead, two unknown) was lower than that of 26 resident foxes (13 alive, 13 died), but did not change with the length of time spent in holding pens. Eleven pups born in the holding pens and released with their parents all died within 17 days of release. Only four foxes were known to breed after release, all with resident foxes. At the end of the study (1992) one fox was known to be alive and 36 (out of 40) were known to have died. Causes of death were predation (20 foxes), road accidents (two foxes) and death during trapping operations (one fox). The cause of death was unknown for 13 foxes. In August and December 1988 and January 1989, and from June–October 1989, foxes were caught and translocated up to 50 km to a 19,120-ha reserve. Foxes were kept in male–female pairs in holding pens (6.1 × 3.1–6.1 × 1.8 m) for 32–354 days before release in spring and summer 1990 (12 adults, 1 pup) and 1991 (28 adults, 10 pups). Foxes were monitored by radio-tracking 4–5 days/week after release.

    Study and other actions tested
Please cite as:

Littlewood, N.A., Rocha, R., Smith, R.K., Martin, P.A., Lockhart, S.L., Schoonover, R.F., Wilman, E., Bladon, A.J., Sainsbury, K.A., Pimm S. and Sutherland, W.J. (2020) Terrestrial Mammal Conservation: Global Evidence for the Effects of Interventions for terrestrial mammals excluding bats and primates. Synopses of Conservation Evidence Series. University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.

Where has this evidence come from?

List of journals searched by synopsis

All the journals searched for all synopses

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation
Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation - Published 2020

Terrestrial Mammal Conservation

What Works 2021 cover

What Works in Conservation

What Works in Conservation provides expert assessments of the effectiveness of actions, based on summarised evidence, in synopses. Subjects covered so far include amphibians, birds, mammals, forests, peatland and control of freshwater invasive species. More are in progress.

More about What Works in Conservation

Download free PDF or purchase
The Conservation Evidence Journal

The Conservation Evidence Journal

An online, free to publish in, open-access journal publishing results from research and projects that test the effectiveness of conservation actions.

Read the latest volume: Volume 21

Go to the CE Journal

Discover more on our blog

Our blog contains the latest news and updates from the Conservation Evidence team, the Conservation Evidence Journal, and our global partners in evidence-based conservation.


Who uses Conservation Evidence?

Meet some of the evidence champions

Endangered Landscape ProgrammeRed List Champion - Arc Kent Wildlife Trust The Rufford Foundation Save the Frogs - Ghana Mauritian Wildlife Supporting Conservation Leaders
Sustainability Dashboard National Biodiversity Network Frog Life The international journey of Conservation - Oryx Cool Farm Alliance UNEP AWFA Bat Conservation InternationalPeople trust for endangered species Vincet Wildlife Trust