Use taste-aversion to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to deter human-wildlife conflict
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Overall effectiveness category Likely to be beneficial
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Number of studies: 9
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How is the evidence assessed?
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Effectiveness
40% -
Certainty
50% -
Harms
0%
Study locations
Supporting evidence from individual studies
A replicated, controlled, before-and-after study (year not stated) on captive animals in the USA (Gustavson et al. 1974) found that after conditioned taste-aversion treatment, coyotes Canis latrans did not catch and eat live lambs or rabbits. After one or two meals of lamb or rabbit meat containing lithium chloride (which causes gastrointestinal discomfort), six coyotes did not attack either lambs or rabbits. Three coyotes were held in individual pens. Over a 13-day period, coyotes alternated between being let into an enclosure with a live lamb or rabbit or with lamb meat containing lithium chloride. A similar experimental procedure was carried out with three different coyotes, which received rabbit meat containing lithium chloride.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 1975–1976 on captive animals (location not stated) (Conover et al. 1977) found that feeding dead chickens injected with lithium chloride to coyotes Canis latrans did not induce taste-aversive against taking live chickens. After eating dead chickens laced with lithium chloride (which causes gastrointestinal discomfort), two coyotes each killed and ate the single live chickens that they were offered. Three different coyotes between them killed and ate 25 of 31 live chickens offered. The five coyotes were offered 79 dead lithium chloride-laced chickens, from which 39 were uneaten, 23 were entirely eaten and 17 were partially eaten. Prior to lacing trials, each coyote was offered five live and five dead chickens (unlaced), all of which were eaten. Coyotes were then offered four to eight dead chickens, laced with lithium chloride. Following this, in daily trials, they were offered, in random order, a recently killed laced chicken or a live chicken. Two coyotes were offered single live chickens at this stage, and three were offered from three to nine live chickens each.
Study and other actions testedA replicated study in 1976–1977 of six livestock farms in a desert area of California, USA (Ellins & Catalano 1980) found that after taste-aversion treatment, the number of sheep and turkeys killed by coyotes Canis latrans declined over time. In the second year that baits containing lithium chloride (which causes gastrointestinal discomfort) were used, the number of sheep killed by coyotes was lower (59 kills) than in the first year that baits were used (186 kills). The same pattern was true for the numbers of turkeys killed (data not presented). From August 1976 to April 1977, sheep carcasses containing lithium chloride were laid as bait, adjacent to areas where four sheep herds were grazing. Sheep herds were at least 12 km apart. From November 1976 to April 1977, turkey carcasses containing lithium chloride were laid as bait adjacent to two turkey farms. Turkey farms were 27 km apart. Methods used to monitor the numbers of animals killed were unclear.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, randomized, controlled, before-and-after study in 1978 on pastures in four areas in Alberta, Canada (Bourne 1982) found that lacing sheep meat baits with lithium chloride did not induce taste-aversive in coyotes Canis latrans against taking lambs. Average lamb predation rates on farms where baits were laced with lithium chloride (which causes gastrointestinal discomfort) (5.7/farm) did not significantly differ from those on farms without baits (7.5/farm). Over each of the previous two years, there was also no difference in predation rates between treatment farms (7.4 and 9.4/farm respectively) and control farms (6.1 and 9.5/farm respectively). Four areas were studied, with five to eight sheep farms (≥8 km apart) in each. Half of farms had lithium chloride baits, half had baits without lithium chloride. Six to 10 baits (sheep meat, wrapped in sheep hide) were placed on each treatment farm in April 1978. Baits were replaced at least every three weeks. Baiting continued to September (to July on two farms). Few baits were consumed in one area, so predation data there were excluded from analyses. Predation rates were supplied by farmers for 1976–1978. Lethal control of coyotes was carried out when predation was confirmed.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled study (year unspecified) in a research facility in Utah, USA (Burns 1983) found that lithium chloride-injected bait did not induce taste aversion that prevented coyotes Canis latrans from killing lambs Ovis aries. Coyotes fed with baits containing lithium chloride (which causes gastrointestinal discomfort) took a similar length of time to kill a lamb after feeding (2.7 days) than did coyotes that had eaten bait without lithium chloride (2.7 days). Eight coyotes were held in separate kennels. At 08:00 each day, an individual animal was let into a 250-m2 pen containing food. If a coyote consumed the food within 10 minutes on three consecutive days, then on the following day bait, in the form of sheep meat contained within sheep hide, was placed in the pen. For four coyotes, the baits contained lithium chloride (which induced gastrointestinal discomfort) and, for the other four, they did not. Coyotes were left in pens until they had eaten at least one bait. Following this, coyotes were let back into the pen along with a live lamb and the time it took for the coyote to kill the lamb was monitored.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after study in 1983 in a research facility in Colorado, USA (Horn 1983) found that feeding domestic European rabbits Oryctolagus cunniculus baited with an illness-inducing agent to coyotes Canis latrans did not change their predation rate on live rabbits. Coyotes killed all live rabbits presented to them both before and after being fed with rabbit meat and rabbit carcases baited with an illness-inducing agent. The study was conducted in a 6,400-m2 enclosure of unspecified habitat. Three wild-caught adult coyotes were each presented with a series of live rabbits and made 10 consecutive kills. Each then received a control bait package (rabbit meat with an empty gelatin capsule) followed by five further live rabbits. Coyotes then received a bait package with a gelatin capsule containing lithium chloride, followed a day later by a live white rabbit. The next day, they received another lithium chloride-laced bait package followed by another live rabbit. Three days later, they received a lithium chloride-treated rabbit carcass and then live rabbits the following day. Bait packages were 227 g of rabbit meat containing 7 g of illness-inducing lithium chloride in a gelatin capsule. Baited rabbit carcasses were injected with 10 g of dissolved lithium chloride. No additional food was provided between trials.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after study in 1975–1976 on 16 pastures in Saskatchewan, Canada (Jelinski et al. 1983) found that use of lithium chloride-treated baits to induce taste-aversion, was associated with reduced predation of sheep by coyotes Canis latrans. Losses of sheep and lambs to coyotes fell from 4% (892 predated out of 22,407 animals) in 1975 (before baits used) to 1.5% (301 predated out of 20,574 animals) in 1976. Factors such as animal husbandry and use of other coyote control methods were not controlled for. Sixteen sheep pastures (mix of private ownership and community cooperatives), holding 101–4,543 sheep, on which predation by coyotes was previously reported, were studied. Baseline predation data were collected in 1975. In 1976, lithium chloride baits (which induce gastrointestinal discomfort) were used at all sites (bait application methods not detailed in paper).
Study and other actions testedA replicated, before-and-after study in 1986 in three deciduous forest sites in Connecticut, USA (Conover 1990) found that dosing chicken eggs with emetine dihydrochloride reduced egg predation by inducing conditioned taste aversion in mammalian predators. The proportion of eggs predated daily was 85% at the end of the pre-treatment period (eggs not dosed), 10% at the end of the treatment period (eggs dosed with emetine) and remained low (17%) at the end of the post-treatment period (eggs not dosed). Mammals (mostly raccoons Procyon lotor, opossums Didelphis virginia and striped skunks Mephitis mephitis) predated 66% of eggs taken. At each of three sites (>4 km apart) 10 chicken eggs were placed >75 m apart. Pre-treatment, treatment and post-treatment each lasted three weeks. Eggs were placed for four days/week and checked (and replaced if predated) daily. During the treatment period, eggs were injected with 20–25 mg of emetine, which causes gastrointestinal discomfort. The study ran in June–September 1986.
Study and other actions testedA replicated, controlled, paired sites study in 1987 in eight deciduous forest sites in Connecticut, USA (Conover 1990) found that dosing chicken eggs with emetine dihydrochloride did not reduce egg predation by inducing conditioned taste aversion in mammalian predators. At treatment sites, the number of eggs predated that were dosed (5.0–8.7/week) or undosed (2.3–3.5/week) was not lower than the number predated at untreated sites (0.8–3.3). Racoons Procyon lotors were the main mammalian predator in this study. Four treatment sites each had 10 undosed eggs and 10 dosed eggs placed >75 m apart. Four further untreated sites each had 10 undosed eggs placed >75 m apart. Dosed eggs were injected with 20–25 mg of emetine, which causes gastrointestinal discomfort. Eggs were checked twice weekly in July–September 1987, and predated eggs were replaced.
Study and other actions tested
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This Action forms part of the Action Synopsis:
Terrestrial Mammal ConservationRelated Actions
| Actions | Effectiveness | Studies | Category | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
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Use negative stimuli to deter consumption of livestock feed by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict Action Link |
Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence) | 1 |
Synopsis Link |
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Install metal grids at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict Action Link |
Likely to be beneficial | 2 |
Synopsis Link |
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Use pheromones to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict Action Link |
No evidence found (no assessment) | 0 |
Synopsis Link |
Terrestrial Mammal Conservation - Published 2020
Terrestrial Mammal Conservation
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